This is libc.info, produced by makeinfo version 5.2 from libc.texinfo.

This file documents the GNU C Library.

   This is ‘The GNU C Library Reference Manual’, for version 2.23.

   Copyright © 1993–2016 Free Software Foundation, Inc.

   Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document
under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.3 or
any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; with the
Invariant Sections being “Free Software Needs Free Documentation” and
“GNU Lesser General Public License”, the Front-Cover texts being “A GNU
Manual”, and with the Back-Cover Texts as in (a) below.  A copy of the
license is included in the section entitled "GNU Free Documentation
License".

   (a) The FSF’s Back-Cover Text is: “You have the freedom to copy and
modify this GNU manual.  Buying copies from the FSF supports it in
developing GNU and promoting software freedom.”
INFO-DIR-SECTION Software libraries
START-INFO-DIR-ENTRY
* Libc: (libc).                 C library.
END-INFO-DIR-ENTRY

INFO-DIR-SECTION GNU C library functions and macros
START-INFO-DIR-ENTRY
* ALTWERASE: (libc)Local Modes.
* ARGP_ERR_UNKNOWN: (libc)Argp Parser Functions.
* ARG_MAX: (libc)General Limits.
* BC_BASE_MAX: (libc)Utility Limits.
* BC_DIM_MAX: (libc)Utility Limits.
* BC_SCALE_MAX: (libc)Utility Limits.
* BC_STRING_MAX: (libc)Utility Limits.
* BRKINT: (libc)Input Modes.
* BUFSIZ: (libc)Controlling Buffering.
* CCTS_OFLOW: (libc)Control Modes.
* CHILD_MAX: (libc)General Limits.
* CIGNORE: (libc)Control Modes.
* CLK_TCK: (libc)Processor Time.
* CLOCAL: (libc)Control Modes.
* CLOCKS_PER_SEC: (libc)CPU Time.
* COLL_WEIGHTS_MAX: (libc)Utility Limits.
* CPU_CLR: (libc)CPU Affinity.
* CPU_ISSET: (libc)CPU Affinity.
* CPU_SET: (libc)CPU Affinity.
* CPU_SETSIZE: (libc)CPU Affinity.
* CPU_ZERO: (libc)CPU Affinity.
* CREAD: (libc)Control Modes.
* CRTS_IFLOW: (libc)Control Modes.
* CS5: (libc)Control Modes.
* CS6: (libc)Control Modes.
* CS7: (libc)Control Modes.
* CS8: (libc)Control Modes.
* CSIZE: (libc)Control Modes.
* CSTOPB: (libc)Control Modes.
* DES_FAILED: (libc)DES Encryption.
* DTTOIF: (libc)Directory Entries.
* E2BIG: (libc)Error Codes.
* EACCES: (libc)Error Codes.
* EADDRINUSE: (libc)Error Codes.
* EADDRNOTAVAIL: (libc)Error Codes.
* EADV: (libc)Error Codes.
* EAFNOSUPPORT: (libc)Error Codes.
* EAGAIN: (libc)Error Codes.
* EALREADY: (libc)Error Codes.
* EAUTH: (libc)Error Codes.
* EBACKGROUND: (libc)Error Codes.
* EBADE: (libc)Error Codes.
* EBADF: (libc)Error Codes.
* EBADFD: (libc)Error Codes.
* EBADMSG: (libc)Error Codes.
* EBADR: (libc)Error Codes.
* EBADRPC: (libc)Error Codes.
* EBADRQC: (libc)Error Codes.
* EBADSLT: (libc)Error Codes.
* EBFONT: (libc)Error Codes.
* EBUSY: (libc)Error Codes.
* ECANCELED: (libc)Error Codes.
* ECHILD: (libc)Error Codes.
* ECHO: (libc)Local Modes.
* ECHOCTL: (libc)Local Modes.
* ECHOE: (libc)Local Modes.
* ECHOK: (libc)Local Modes.
* ECHOKE: (libc)Local Modes.
* ECHONL: (libc)Local Modes.
* ECHOPRT: (libc)Local Modes.
* ECHRNG: (libc)Error Codes.
* ECOMM: (libc)Error Codes.
* ECONNABORTED: (libc)Error Codes.
* ECONNREFUSED: (libc)Error Codes.
* ECONNRESET: (libc)Error Codes.
* ED: (libc)Error Codes.
* EDEADLK: (libc)Error Codes.
* EDEADLOCK: (libc)Error Codes.
* EDESTADDRREQ: (libc)Error Codes.
* EDIED: (libc)Error Codes.
* EDOM: (libc)Error Codes.
* EDOTDOT: (libc)Error Codes.
* EDQUOT: (libc)Error Codes.
* EEXIST: (libc)Error Codes.
* EFAULT: (libc)Error Codes.
* EFBIG: (libc)Error Codes.
* EFTYPE: (libc)Error Codes.
* EGRATUITOUS: (libc)Error Codes.
* EGREGIOUS: (libc)Error Codes.
* EHOSTDOWN: (libc)Error Codes.
* EHOSTUNREACH: (libc)Error Codes.
* EHWPOISON: (libc)Error Codes.
* EIDRM: (libc)Error Codes.
* EIEIO: (libc)Error Codes.
* EILSEQ: (libc)Error Codes.
* EINPROGRESS: (libc)Error Codes.
* EINTR: (libc)Error Codes.
* EINVAL: (libc)Error Codes.
* EIO: (libc)Error Codes.
* EISCONN: (libc)Error Codes.
* EISDIR: (libc)Error Codes.
* EISNAM: (libc)Error Codes.
* EKEYEXPIRED: (libc)Error Codes.
* EKEYREJECTED: (libc)Error Codes.
* EKEYREVOKED: (libc)Error Codes.
* EL2HLT: (libc)Error Codes.
* EL2NSYNC: (libc)Error Codes.
* EL3HLT: (libc)Error Codes.
* EL3RST: (libc)Error Codes.
* ELIBACC: (libc)Error Codes.
* ELIBBAD: (libc)Error Codes.
* ELIBEXEC: (libc)Error Codes.
* ELIBMAX: (libc)Error Codes.
* ELIBSCN: (libc)Error Codes.
* ELNRNG: (libc)Error Codes.
* ELOOP: (libc)Error Codes.
* EMEDIUMTYPE: (libc)Error Codes.
* EMFILE: (libc)Error Codes.
* EMLINK: (libc)Error Codes.
* EMSGSIZE: (libc)Error Codes.
* EMULTIHOP: (libc)Error Codes.
* ENAMETOOLONG: (libc)Error Codes.
* ENAVAIL: (libc)Error Codes.
* ENEEDAUTH: (libc)Error Codes.
* ENETDOWN: (libc)Error Codes.
* ENETRESET: (libc)Error Codes.
* ENETUNREACH: (libc)Error Codes.
* ENFILE: (libc)Error Codes.
* ENOANO: (libc)Error Codes.
* ENOBUFS: (libc)Error Codes.
* ENOCSI: (libc)Error Codes.
* ENODATA: (libc)Error Codes.
* ENODEV: (libc)Error Codes.
* ENOENT: (libc)Error Codes.
* ENOEXEC: (libc)Error Codes.
* ENOKEY: (libc)Error Codes.
* ENOLCK: (libc)Error Codes.
* ENOLINK: (libc)Error Codes.
* ENOMEDIUM: (libc)Error Codes.
* ENOMEM: (libc)Error Codes.
* ENOMSG: (libc)Error Codes.
* ENONET: (libc)Error Codes.
* ENOPKG: (libc)Error Codes.
* ENOPROTOOPT: (libc)Error Codes.
* ENOSPC: (libc)Error Codes.
* ENOSR: (libc)Error Codes.
* ENOSTR: (libc)Error Codes.
* ENOSYS: (libc)Error Codes.
* ENOTBLK: (libc)Error Codes.
* ENOTCONN: (libc)Error Codes.
* ENOTDIR: (libc)Error Codes.
* ENOTEMPTY: (libc)Error Codes.
* ENOTNAM: (libc)Error Codes.
* ENOTRECOVERABLE: (libc)Error Codes.
* ENOTSOCK: (libc)Error Codes.
* ENOTSUP: (libc)Error Codes.
* ENOTTY: (libc)Error Codes.
* ENOTUNIQ: (libc)Error Codes.
* ENXIO: (libc)Error Codes.
* EOF: (libc)EOF and Errors.
* EOPNOTSUPP: (libc)Error Codes.
* EOVERFLOW: (libc)Error Codes.
* EOWNERDEAD: (libc)Error Codes.
* EPERM: (libc)Error Codes.
* EPFNOSUPPORT: (libc)Error Codes.
* EPIPE: (libc)Error Codes.
* EPROCLIM: (libc)Error Codes.
* EPROCUNAVAIL: (libc)Error Codes.
* EPROGMISMATCH: (libc)Error Codes.
* EPROGUNAVAIL: (libc)Error Codes.
* EPROTO: (libc)Error Codes.
* EPROTONOSUPPORT: (libc)Error Codes.
* EPROTOTYPE: (libc)Error Codes.
* EQUIV_CLASS_MAX: (libc)Utility Limits.
* ERANGE: (libc)Error Codes.
* EREMCHG: (libc)Error Codes.
* EREMOTE: (libc)Error Codes.
* EREMOTEIO: (libc)Error Codes.
* ERESTART: (libc)Error Codes.
* ERFKILL: (libc)Error Codes.
* EROFS: (libc)Error Codes.
* ERPCMISMATCH: (libc)Error Codes.
* ESHUTDOWN: (libc)Error Codes.
* ESOCKTNOSUPPORT: (libc)Error Codes.
* ESPIPE: (libc)Error Codes.
* ESRCH: (libc)Error Codes.
* ESRMNT: (libc)Error Codes.
* ESTALE: (libc)Error Codes.
* ESTRPIPE: (libc)Error Codes.
* ETIME: (libc)Error Codes.
* ETIMEDOUT: (libc)Error Codes.
* ETOOMANYREFS: (libc)Error Codes.
* ETXTBSY: (libc)Error Codes.
* EUCLEAN: (libc)Error Codes.
* EUNATCH: (libc)Error Codes.
* EUSERS: (libc)Error Codes.
* EWOULDBLOCK: (libc)Error Codes.
* EXDEV: (libc)Error Codes.
* EXFULL: (libc)Error Codes.
* EXIT_FAILURE: (libc)Exit Status.
* EXIT_SUCCESS: (libc)Exit Status.
* EXPR_NEST_MAX: (libc)Utility Limits.
* FD_CLOEXEC: (libc)Descriptor Flags.
* FD_CLR: (libc)Waiting for I/O.
* FD_ISSET: (libc)Waiting for I/O.
* FD_SET: (libc)Waiting for I/O.
* FD_SETSIZE: (libc)Waiting for I/O.
* FD_ZERO: (libc)Waiting for I/O.
* FILENAME_MAX: (libc)Limits for Files.
* FLUSHO: (libc)Local Modes.
* FOPEN_MAX: (libc)Opening Streams.
* FP_ILOGB0: (libc)Exponents and Logarithms.
* FP_ILOGBNAN: (libc)Exponents and Logarithms.
* F_DUPFD: (libc)Duplicating Descriptors.
* F_GETFD: (libc)Descriptor Flags.
* F_GETFL: (libc)Getting File Status Flags.
* F_GETLK: (libc)File Locks.
* F_GETOWN: (libc)Interrupt Input.
* F_OFD_GETLK: (libc)Open File Description Locks.
* F_OFD_SETLK: (libc)Open File Description Locks.
* F_OFD_SETLKW: (libc)Open File Description Locks.
* F_OK: (libc)Testing File Access.
* F_SETFD: (libc)Descriptor Flags.
* F_SETFL: (libc)Getting File Status Flags.
* F_SETLK: (libc)File Locks.
* F_SETLKW: (libc)File Locks.
* F_SETOWN: (libc)Interrupt Input.
* HUGE_VAL: (libc)Math Error Reporting.
* HUGE_VALF: (libc)Math Error Reporting.
* HUGE_VALL: (libc)Math Error Reporting.
* HUPCL: (libc)Control Modes.
* I: (libc)Complex Numbers.
* ICANON: (libc)Local Modes.
* ICRNL: (libc)Input Modes.
* IEXTEN: (libc)Local Modes.
* IFNAMSIZ: (libc)Interface Naming.
* IFTODT: (libc)Directory Entries.
* IGNBRK: (libc)Input Modes.
* IGNCR: (libc)Input Modes.
* IGNPAR: (libc)Input Modes.
* IMAXBEL: (libc)Input Modes.
* INADDR_ANY: (libc)Host Address Data Type.
* INADDR_BROADCAST: (libc)Host Address Data Type.
* INADDR_LOOPBACK: (libc)Host Address Data Type.
* INADDR_NONE: (libc)Host Address Data Type.
* INFINITY: (libc)Infinity and NaN.
* INLCR: (libc)Input Modes.
* INPCK: (libc)Input Modes.
* IPPORT_RESERVED: (libc)Ports.
* IPPORT_USERRESERVED: (libc)Ports.
* ISIG: (libc)Local Modes.
* ISTRIP: (libc)Input Modes.
* IXANY: (libc)Input Modes.
* IXOFF: (libc)Input Modes.
* IXON: (libc)Input Modes.
* LINE_MAX: (libc)Utility Limits.
* LINK_MAX: (libc)Limits for Files.
* L_ctermid: (libc)Identifying the Terminal.
* L_cuserid: (libc)Who Logged In.
* L_tmpnam: (libc)Temporary Files.
* MAXNAMLEN: (libc)Limits for Files.
* MAXSYMLINKS: (libc)Symbolic Links.
* MAX_CANON: (libc)Limits for Files.
* MAX_INPUT: (libc)Limits for Files.
* MB_CUR_MAX: (libc)Selecting the Conversion.
* MB_LEN_MAX: (libc)Selecting the Conversion.
* MDMBUF: (libc)Control Modes.
* MSG_DONTROUTE: (libc)Socket Data Options.
* MSG_OOB: (libc)Socket Data Options.
* MSG_PEEK: (libc)Socket Data Options.
* NAME_MAX: (libc)Limits for Files.
* NAN: (libc)Infinity and NaN.
* NCCS: (libc)Mode Data Types.
* NGROUPS_MAX: (libc)General Limits.
* NOFLSH: (libc)Local Modes.
* NOKERNINFO: (libc)Local Modes.
* NSIG: (libc)Standard Signals.
* NULL: (libc)Null Pointer Constant.
* ONLCR: (libc)Output Modes.
* ONOEOT: (libc)Output Modes.
* OPEN_MAX: (libc)General Limits.
* OPOST: (libc)Output Modes.
* OXTABS: (libc)Output Modes.
* O_ACCMODE: (libc)Access Modes.
* O_APPEND: (libc)Operating Modes.
* O_ASYNC: (libc)Operating Modes.
* O_CREAT: (libc)Open-time Flags.
* O_EXCL: (libc)Open-time Flags.
* O_EXEC: (libc)Access Modes.
* O_EXLOCK: (libc)Open-time Flags.
* O_FSYNC: (libc)Operating Modes.
* O_IGNORE_CTTY: (libc)Open-time Flags.
* O_NDELAY: (libc)Operating Modes.
* O_NOATIME: (libc)Operating Modes.
* O_NOCTTY: (libc)Open-time Flags.
* O_NOLINK: (libc)Open-time Flags.
* O_NONBLOCK: (libc)Open-time Flags.
* O_NONBLOCK: (libc)Operating Modes.
* O_NOTRANS: (libc)Open-time Flags.
* O_RDONLY: (libc)Access Modes.
* O_RDWR: (libc)Access Modes.
* O_READ: (libc)Access Modes.
* O_SHLOCK: (libc)Open-time Flags.
* O_SYNC: (libc)Operating Modes.
* O_TRUNC: (libc)Open-time Flags.
* O_WRITE: (libc)Access Modes.
* O_WRONLY: (libc)Access Modes.
* PARENB: (libc)Control Modes.
* PARMRK: (libc)Input Modes.
* PARODD: (libc)Control Modes.
* PATH_MAX: (libc)Limits for Files.
* PA_FLAG_MASK: (libc)Parsing a Template String.
* PENDIN: (libc)Local Modes.
* PF_FILE: (libc)Local Namespace Details.
* PF_INET6: (libc)Internet Namespace.
* PF_INET: (libc)Internet Namespace.
* PF_LOCAL: (libc)Local Namespace Details.
* PF_UNIX: (libc)Local Namespace Details.
* PIPE_BUF: (libc)Limits for Files.
* P_tmpdir: (libc)Temporary Files.
* RAND_MAX: (libc)ISO Random.
* RE_DUP_MAX: (libc)General Limits.
* RLIM_INFINITY: (libc)Limits on Resources.
* R_OK: (libc)Testing File Access.
* SA_NOCLDSTOP: (libc)Flags for Sigaction.
* SA_ONSTACK: (libc)Flags for Sigaction.
* SA_RESTART: (libc)Flags for Sigaction.
* SEEK_CUR: (libc)File Positioning.
* SEEK_END: (libc)File Positioning.
* SEEK_SET: (libc)File Positioning.
* SIGABRT: (libc)Program Error Signals.
* SIGALRM: (libc)Alarm Signals.
* SIGBUS: (libc)Program Error Signals.
* SIGCHLD: (libc)Job Control Signals.
* SIGCLD: (libc)Job Control Signals.
* SIGCONT: (libc)Job Control Signals.
* SIGEMT: (libc)Program Error Signals.
* SIGFPE: (libc)Program Error Signals.
* SIGHUP: (libc)Termination Signals.
* SIGILL: (libc)Program Error Signals.
* SIGINFO: (libc)Miscellaneous Signals.
* SIGINT: (libc)Termination Signals.
* SIGIO: (libc)Asynchronous I/O Signals.
* SIGIOT: (libc)Program Error Signals.
* SIGKILL: (libc)Termination Signals.
* SIGLOST: (libc)Operation Error Signals.
* SIGPIPE: (libc)Operation Error Signals.
* SIGPOLL: (libc)Asynchronous I/O Signals.
* SIGPROF: (libc)Alarm Signals.
* SIGQUIT: (libc)Termination Signals.
* SIGSEGV: (libc)Program Error Signals.
* SIGSTOP: (libc)Job Control Signals.
* SIGSYS: (libc)Program Error Signals.
* SIGTERM: (libc)Termination Signals.
* SIGTRAP: (libc)Program Error Signals.
* SIGTSTP: (libc)Job Control Signals.
* SIGTTIN: (libc)Job Control Signals.
* SIGTTOU: (libc)Job Control Signals.
* SIGURG: (libc)Asynchronous I/O Signals.
* SIGUSR1: (libc)Miscellaneous Signals.
* SIGUSR2: (libc)Miscellaneous Signals.
* SIGVTALRM: (libc)Alarm Signals.
* SIGWINCH: (libc)Miscellaneous Signals.
* SIGXCPU: (libc)Operation Error Signals.
* SIGXFSZ: (libc)Operation Error Signals.
* SIG_ERR: (libc)Basic Signal Handling.
* SOCK_DGRAM: (libc)Communication Styles.
* SOCK_RAW: (libc)Communication Styles.
* SOCK_RDM: (libc)Communication Styles.
* SOCK_SEQPACKET: (libc)Communication Styles.
* SOCK_STREAM: (libc)Communication Styles.
* SOL_SOCKET: (libc)Socket-Level Options.
* SSIZE_MAX: (libc)General Limits.
* STREAM_MAX: (libc)General Limits.
* SUN_LEN: (libc)Local Namespace Details.
* S_IFMT: (libc)Testing File Type.
* S_ISBLK: (libc)Testing File Type.
* S_ISCHR: (libc)Testing File Type.
* S_ISDIR: (libc)Testing File Type.
* S_ISFIFO: (libc)Testing File Type.
* S_ISLNK: (libc)Testing File Type.
* S_ISREG: (libc)Testing File Type.
* S_ISSOCK: (libc)Testing File Type.
* S_TYPEISMQ: (libc)Testing File Type.
* S_TYPEISSEM: (libc)Testing File Type.
* S_TYPEISSHM: (libc)Testing File Type.
* TMP_MAX: (libc)Temporary Files.
* TOSTOP: (libc)Local Modes.
* TZNAME_MAX: (libc)General Limits.
* VDISCARD: (libc)Other Special.
* VDSUSP: (libc)Signal Characters.
* VEOF: (libc)Editing Characters.
* VEOL2: (libc)Editing Characters.
* VEOL: (libc)Editing Characters.
* VERASE: (libc)Editing Characters.
* VINTR: (libc)Signal Characters.
* VKILL: (libc)Editing Characters.
* VLNEXT: (libc)Other Special.
* VMIN: (libc)Noncanonical Input.
* VQUIT: (libc)Signal Characters.
* VREPRINT: (libc)Editing Characters.
* VSTART: (libc)Start/Stop Characters.
* VSTATUS: (libc)Other Special.
* VSTOP: (libc)Start/Stop Characters.
* VSUSP: (libc)Signal Characters.
* VTIME: (libc)Noncanonical Input.
* VWERASE: (libc)Editing Characters.
* WCHAR_MAX: (libc)Extended Char Intro.
* WCHAR_MIN: (libc)Extended Char Intro.
* WCOREDUMP: (libc)Process Completion Status.
* WEOF: (libc)EOF and Errors.
* WEOF: (libc)Extended Char Intro.
* WEXITSTATUS: (libc)Process Completion Status.
* WIFEXITED: (libc)Process Completion Status.
* WIFSIGNALED: (libc)Process Completion Status.
* WIFSTOPPED: (libc)Process Completion Status.
* WSTOPSIG: (libc)Process Completion Status.
* WTERMSIG: (libc)Process Completion Status.
* W_OK: (libc)Testing File Access.
* X_OK: (libc)Testing File Access.
* _Complex_I: (libc)Complex Numbers.
* _Exit: (libc)Termination Internals.
* _IOFBF: (libc)Controlling Buffering.
* _IOLBF: (libc)Controlling Buffering.
* _IONBF: (libc)Controlling Buffering.
* _Imaginary_I: (libc)Complex Numbers.
* _PATH_UTMP: (libc)Manipulating the Database.
* _PATH_WTMP: (libc)Manipulating the Database.
* _POSIX2_C_DEV: (libc)System Options.
* _POSIX2_C_VERSION: (libc)Version Supported.
* _POSIX2_FORT_DEV: (libc)System Options.
* _POSIX2_FORT_RUN: (libc)System Options.
* _POSIX2_LOCALEDEF: (libc)System Options.
* _POSIX2_SW_DEV: (libc)System Options.
* _POSIX_CHOWN_RESTRICTED: (libc)Options for Files.
* _POSIX_JOB_CONTROL: (libc)System Options.
* _POSIX_NO_TRUNC: (libc)Options for Files.
* _POSIX_SAVED_IDS: (libc)System Options.
* _POSIX_VDISABLE: (libc)Options for Files.
* _POSIX_VERSION: (libc)Version Supported.
* __fbufsize: (libc)Controlling Buffering.
* __flbf: (libc)Controlling Buffering.
* __fpending: (libc)Controlling Buffering.
* __fpurge: (libc)Flushing Buffers.
* __freadable: (libc)Opening Streams.
* __freading: (libc)Opening Streams.
* __fsetlocking: (libc)Streams and Threads.
* __fwritable: (libc)Opening Streams.
* __fwriting: (libc)Opening Streams.
* __gconv_end_fct: (libc)glibc iconv Implementation.
* __gconv_fct: (libc)glibc iconv Implementation.
* __gconv_init_fct: (libc)glibc iconv Implementation.
* __ppc_get_timebase: (libc)PowerPC.
* __ppc_get_timebase_freq: (libc)PowerPC.
* __ppc_mdoio: (libc)PowerPC.
* __ppc_mdoom: (libc)PowerPC.
* __ppc_set_ppr_low: (libc)PowerPC.
* __ppc_set_ppr_med: (libc)PowerPC.
* __ppc_set_ppr_med_high: (libc)PowerPC.
* __ppc_set_ppr_med_low: (libc)PowerPC.
* __ppc_set_ppr_very_low: (libc)PowerPC.
* __ppc_yield: (libc)PowerPC.
* __va_copy: (libc)Argument Macros.
* _exit: (libc)Termination Internals.
* _flushlbf: (libc)Flushing Buffers.
* _tolower: (libc)Case Conversion.
* _toupper: (libc)Case Conversion.
* a64l: (libc)Encode Binary Data.
* abort: (libc)Aborting a Program.
* abs: (libc)Absolute Value.
* accept: (libc)Accepting Connections.
* access: (libc)Testing File Access.
* acos: (libc)Inverse Trig Functions.
* acosf: (libc)Inverse Trig Functions.
* acosh: (libc)Hyperbolic Functions.
* acoshf: (libc)Hyperbolic Functions.
* acoshl: (libc)Hyperbolic Functions.
* acosl: (libc)Inverse Trig Functions.
* addmntent: (libc)mtab.
* addseverity: (libc)Adding Severity Classes.
* adjtime: (libc)High-Resolution Calendar.
* adjtimex: (libc)High-Resolution Calendar.
* aio_cancel64: (libc)Cancel AIO Operations.
* aio_cancel: (libc)Cancel AIO Operations.
* aio_error64: (libc)Status of AIO Operations.
* aio_error: (libc)Status of AIO Operations.
* aio_fsync64: (libc)Synchronizing AIO Operations.
* aio_fsync: (libc)Synchronizing AIO Operations.
* aio_init: (libc)Configuration of AIO.
* aio_read64: (libc)Asynchronous Reads/Writes.
* aio_read: (libc)Asynchronous Reads/Writes.
* aio_return64: (libc)Status of AIO Operations.
* aio_return: (libc)Status of AIO Operations.
* aio_suspend64: (libc)Synchronizing AIO Operations.
* aio_suspend: (libc)Synchronizing AIO Operations.
* aio_write64: (libc)Asynchronous Reads/Writes.
* aio_write: (libc)Asynchronous Reads/Writes.
* alarm: (libc)Setting an Alarm.
* aligned_alloc: (libc)Aligned Memory Blocks.
* alloca: (libc)Variable Size Automatic.
* alphasort64: (libc)Scanning Directory Content.
* alphasort: (libc)Scanning Directory Content.
* argp_error: (libc)Argp Helper Functions.
* argp_failure: (libc)Argp Helper Functions.
* argp_help: (libc)Argp Help.
* argp_parse: (libc)Argp.
* argp_state_help: (libc)Argp Helper Functions.
* argp_usage: (libc)Argp Helper Functions.
* argz_add: (libc)Argz Functions.
* argz_add_sep: (libc)Argz Functions.
* argz_append: (libc)Argz Functions.
* argz_count: (libc)Argz Functions.
* argz_create: (libc)Argz Functions.
* argz_create_sep: (libc)Argz Functions.
* argz_delete: (libc)Argz Functions.
* argz_extract: (libc)Argz Functions.
* argz_insert: (libc)Argz Functions.
* argz_next: (libc)Argz Functions.
* argz_replace: (libc)Argz Functions.
* argz_stringify: (libc)Argz Functions.
* asctime: (libc)Formatting Calendar Time.
* asctime_r: (libc)Formatting Calendar Time.
* asin: (libc)Inverse Trig Functions.
* asinf: (libc)Inverse Trig Functions.
* asinh: (libc)Hyperbolic Functions.
* asinhf: (libc)Hyperbolic Functions.
* asinhl: (libc)Hyperbolic Functions.
* asinl: (libc)Inverse Trig Functions.
* asprintf: (libc)Dynamic Output.
* assert: (libc)Consistency Checking.
* assert_perror: (libc)Consistency Checking.
* atan2: (libc)Inverse Trig Functions.
* atan2f: (libc)Inverse Trig Functions.
* atan2l: (libc)Inverse Trig Functions.
* atan: (libc)Inverse Trig Functions.
* atanf: (libc)Inverse Trig Functions.
* atanh: (libc)Hyperbolic Functions.
* atanhf: (libc)Hyperbolic Functions.
* atanhl: (libc)Hyperbolic Functions.
* atanl: (libc)Inverse Trig Functions.
* atexit: (libc)Cleanups on Exit.
* atof: (libc)Parsing of Floats.
* atoi: (libc)Parsing of Integers.
* atol: (libc)Parsing of Integers.
* atoll: (libc)Parsing of Integers.
* backtrace: (libc)Backtraces.
* backtrace_symbols: (libc)Backtraces.
* backtrace_symbols_fd: (libc)Backtraces.
* basename: (libc)Finding Tokens in a String.
* basename: (libc)Finding Tokens in a String.
* bcmp: (libc)String/Array Comparison.
* bcopy: (libc)Copying Strings and Arrays.
* bind: (libc)Setting Address.
* bind_textdomain_codeset: (libc)Charset conversion in gettext.
* bindtextdomain: (libc)Locating gettext catalog.
* brk: (libc)Resizing the Data Segment.
* bsearch: (libc)Array Search Function.
* btowc: (libc)Converting a Character.
* bzero: (libc)Copying Strings and Arrays.
* cabs: (libc)Absolute Value.
* cabsf: (libc)Absolute Value.
* cabsl: (libc)Absolute Value.
* cacos: (libc)Inverse Trig Functions.
* cacosf: (libc)Inverse Trig Functions.
* cacosh: (libc)Hyperbolic Functions.
* cacoshf: (libc)Hyperbolic Functions.
* cacoshl: (libc)Hyperbolic Functions.
* cacosl: (libc)Inverse Trig Functions.
* calloc: (libc)Allocating Cleared Space.
* canonicalize_file_name: (libc)Symbolic Links.
* carg: (libc)Operations on Complex.
* cargf: (libc)Operations on Complex.
* cargl: (libc)Operations on Complex.
* casin: (libc)Inverse Trig Functions.
* casinf: (libc)Inverse Trig Functions.
* casinh: (libc)Hyperbolic Functions.
* casinhf: (libc)Hyperbolic Functions.
* casinhl: (libc)Hyperbolic Functions.
* casinl: (libc)Inverse Trig Functions.
* catan: (libc)Inverse Trig Functions.
* catanf: (libc)Inverse Trig Functions.
* catanh: (libc)Hyperbolic Functions.
* catanhf: (libc)Hyperbolic Functions.
* catanhl: (libc)Hyperbolic Functions.
* catanl: (libc)Inverse Trig Functions.
* catclose: (libc)The catgets Functions.
* catgets: (libc)The catgets Functions.
* catopen: (libc)The catgets Functions.
* cbc_crypt: (libc)DES Encryption.
* cbrt: (libc)Exponents and Logarithms.
* cbrtf: (libc)Exponents and Logarithms.
* cbrtl: (libc)Exponents and Logarithms.
* ccos: (libc)Trig Functions.
* ccosf: (libc)Trig Functions.
* ccosh: (libc)Hyperbolic Functions.
* ccoshf: (libc)Hyperbolic Functions.
* ccoshl: (libc)Hyperbolic Functions.
* ccosl: (libc)Trig Functions.
* ceil: (libc)Rounding Functions.
* ceilf: (libc)Rounding Functions.
* ceill: (libc)Rounding Functions.
* cexp: (libc)Exponents and Logarithms.
* cexpf: (libc)Exponents and Logarithms.
* cexpl: (libc)Exponents and Logarithms.
* cfgetispeed: (libc)Line Speed.
* cfgetospeed: (libc)Line Speed.
* cfmakeraw: (libc)Noncanonical Input.
* cfree: (libc)Freeing after Malloc.
* cfsetispeed: (libc)Line Speed.
* cfsetospeed: (libc)Line Speed.
* cfsetspeed: (libc)Line Speed.
* chdir: (libc)Working Directory.
* chmod: (libc)Setting Permissions.
* chown: (libc)File Owner.
* cimag: (libc)Operations on Complex.
* cimagf: (libc)Operations on Complex.
* cimagl: (libc)Operations on Complex.
* clearenv: (libc)Environment Access.
* clearerr: (libc)Error Recovery.
* clearerr_unlocked: (libc)Error Recovery.
* clock: (libc)CPU Time.
* clog10: (libc)Exponents and Logarithms.
* clog10f: (libc)Exponents and Logarithms.
* clog10l: (libc)Exponents and Logarithms.
* clog: (libc)Exponents and Logarithms.
* clogf: (libc)Exponents and Logarithms.
* clogl: (libc)Exponents and Logarithms.
* close: (libc)Opening and Closing Files.
* closedir: (libc)Reading/Closing Directory.
* closelog: (libc)closelog.
* confstr: (libc)String Parameters.
* conj: (libc)Operations on Complex.
* conjf: (libc)Operations on Complex.
* conjl: (libc)Operations on Complex.
* connect: (libc)Connecting.
* copysign: (libc)FP Bit Twiddling.
* copysignf: (libc)FP Bit Twiddling.
* copysignl: (libc)FP Bit Twiddling.
* cos: (libc)Trig Functions.
* cosf: (libc)Trig Functions.
* cosh: (libc)Hyperbolic Functions.
* coshf: (libc)Hyperbolic Functions.
* coshl: (libc)Hyperbolic Functions.
* cosl: (libc)Trig Functions.
* cpow: (libc)Exponents and Logarithms.
* cpowf: (libc)Exponents and Logarithms.
* cpowl: (libc)Exponents and Logarithms.
* cproj: (libc)Operations on Complex.
* cprojf: (libc)Operations on Complex.
* cprojl: (libc)Operations on Complex.
* creal: (libc)Operations on Complex.
* crealf: (libc)Operations on Complex.
* creall: (libc)Operations on Complex.
* creat64: (libc)Opening and Closing Files.
* creat: (libc)Opening and Closing Files.
* crypt: (libc)crypt.
* crypt_r: (libc)crypt.
* csin: (libc)Trig Functions.
* csinf: (libc)Trig Functions.
* csinh: (libc)Hyperbolic Functions.
* csinhf: (libc)Hyperbolic Functions.
* csinhl: (libc)Hyperbolic Functions.
* csinl: (libc)Trig Functions.
* csqrt: (libc)Exponents and Logarithms.
* csqrtf: (libc)Exponents and Logarithms.
* csqrtl: (libc)Exponents and Logarithms.
* ctan: (libc)Trig Functions.
* ctanf: (libc)Trig Functions.
* ctanh: (libc)Hyperbolic Functions.
* ctanhf: (libc)Hyperbolic Functions.
* ctanhl: (libc)Hyperbolic Functions.
* ctanl: (libc)Trig Functions.
* ctermid: (libc)Identifying the Terminal.
* ctime: (libc)Formatting Calendar Time.
* ctime_r: (libc)Formatting Calendar Time.
* cuserid: (libc)Who Logged In.
* dcgettext: (libc)Translation with gettext.
* dcngettext: (libc)Advanced gettext functions.
* des_setparity: (libc)DES Encryption.
* dgettext: (libc)Translation with gettext.
* difftime: (libc)Elapsed Time.
* dirfd: (libc)Opening a Directory.
* dirname: (libc)Finding Tokens in a String.
* div: (libc)Integer Division.
* dngettext: (libc)Advanced gettext functions.
* drand48: (libc)SVID Random.
* drand48_r: (libc)SVID Random.
* drem: (libc)Remainder Functions.
* dremf: (libc)Remainder Functions.
* dreml: (libc)Remainder Functions.
* dup2: (libc)Duplicating Descriptors.
* dup: (libc)Duplicating Descriptors.
* ecb_crypt: (libc)DES Encryption.
* ecvt: (libc)System V Number Conversion.
* ecvt_r: (libc)System V Number Conversion.
* encrypt: (libc)DES Encryption.
* encrypt_r: (libc)DES Encryption.
* endfsent: (libc)fstab.
* endgrent: (libc)Scanning All Groups.
* endhostent: (libc)Host Names.
* endmntent: (libc)mtab.
* endnetent: (libc)Networks Database.
* endnetgrent: (libc)Lookup Netgroup.
* endprotoent: (libc)Protocols Database.
* endpwent: (libc)Scanning All Users.
* endservent: (libc)Services Database.
* endutent: (libc)Manipulating the Database.
* endutxent: (libc)XPG Functions.
* envz_add: (libc)Envz Functions.
* envz_entry: (libc)Envz Functions.
* envz_get: (libc)Envz Functions.
* envz_merge: (libc)Envz Functions.
* envz_remove: (libc)Envz Functions.
* envz_strip: (libc)Envz Functions.
* erand48: (libc)SVID Random.
* erand48_r: (libc)SVID Random.
* erf: (libc)Special Functions.
* erfc: (libc)Special Functions.
* erfcf: (libc)Special Functions.
* erfcl: (libc)Special Functions.
* erff: (libc)Special Functions.
* erfl: (libc)Special Functions.
* err: (libc)Error Messages.
* errno: (libc)Checking for Errors.
* error: (libc)Error Messages.
* error_at_line: (libc)Error Messages.
* errx: (libc)Error Messages.
* execl: (libc)Executing a File.
* execle: (libc)Executing a File.
* execlp: (libc)Executing a File.
* execv: (libc)Executing a File.
* execve: (libc)Executing a File.
* execvp: (libc)Executing a File.
* exit: (libc)Normal Termination.
* exp10: (libc)Exponents and Logarithms.
* exp10f: (libc)Exponents and Logarithms.
* exp10l: (libc)Exponents and Logarithms.
* exp2: (libc)Exponents and Logarithms.
* exp2f: (libc)Exponents and Logarithms.
* exp2l: (libc)Exponents and Logarithms.
* exp: (libc)Exponents and Logarithms.
* expf: (libc)Exponents and Logarithms.
* expl: (libc)Exponents and Logarithms.
* expm1: (libc)Exponents and Logarithms.
* expm1f: (libc)Exponents and Logarithms.
* expm1l: (libc)Exponents and Logarithms.
* fabs: (libc)Absolute Value.
* fabsf: (libc)Absolute Value.
* fabsl: (libc)Absolute Value.
* fchdir: (libc)Working Directory.
* fchmod: (libc)Setting Permissions.
* fchown: (libc)File Owner.
* fclose: (libc)Closing Streams.
* fcloseall: (libc)Closing Streams.
* fcntl: (libc)Control Operations.
* fcvt: (libc)System V Number Conversion.
* fcvt_r: (libc)System V Number Conversion.
* fdatasync: (libc)Synchronizing I/O.
* fdim: (libc)Misc FP Arithmetic.
* fdimf: (libc)Misc FP Arithmetic.
* fdiml: (libc)Misc FP Arithmetic.
* fdopen: (libc)Descriptors and Streams.
* fdopendir: (libc)Opening a Directory.
* feclearexcept: (libc)Status bit operations.
* fedisableexcept: (libc)Control Functions.
* feenableexcept: (libc)Control Functions.
* fegetenv: (libc)Control Functions.
* fegetexcept: (libc)Control Functions.
* fegetexceptflag: (libc)Status bit operations.
* fegetround: (libc)Rounding.
* feholdexcept: (libc)Control Functions.
* feof: (libc)EOF and Errors.
* feof_unlocked: (libc)EOF and Errors.
* feraiseexcept: (libc)Status bit operations.
* ferror: (libc)EOF and Errors.
* ferror_unlocked: (libc)EOF and Errors.
* fesetenv: (libc)Control Functions.
* fesetexceptflag: (libc)Status bit operations.
* fesetround: (libc)Rounding.
* fetestexcept: (libc)Status bit operations.
* feupdateenv: (libc)Control Functions.
* fflush: (libc)Flushing Buffers.
* fflush_unlocked: (libc)Flushing Buffers.
* fgetc: (libc)Character Input.
* fgetc_unlocked: (libc)Character Input.
* fgetgrent: (libc)Scanning All Groups.
* fgetgrent_r: (libc)Scanning All Groups.
* fgetpos64: (libc)Portable Positioning.
* fgetpos: (libc)Portable Positioning.
* fgetpwent: (libc)Scanning All Users.
* fgetpwent_r: (libc)Scanning All Users.
* fgets: (libc)Line Input.
* fgets_unlocked: (libc)Line Input.
* fgetwc: (libc)Character Input.
* fgetwc_unlocked: (libc)Character Input.
* fgetws: (libc)Line Input.
* fgetws_unlocked: (libc)Line Input.
* fileno: (libc)Descriptors and Streams.
* fileno_unlocked: (libc)Descriptors and Streams.
* finite: (libc)Floating Point Classes.
* finitef: (libc)Floating Point Classes.
* finitel: (libc)Floating Point Classes.
* flockfile: (libc)Streams and Threads.
* floor: (libc)Rounding Functions.
* floorf: (libc)Rounding Functions.
* floorl: (libc)Rounding Functions.
* fma: (libc)Misc FP Arithmetic.
* fmaf: (libc)Misc FP Arithmetic.
* fmal: (libc)Misc FP Arithmetic.
* fmax: (libc)Misc FP Arithmetic.
* fmaxf: (libc)Misc FP Arithmetic.
* fmaxl: (libc)Misc FP Arithmetic.
* fmemopen: (libc)String Streams.
* fmin: (libc)Misc FP Arithmetic.
* fminf: (libc)Misc FP Arithmetic.
* fminl: (libc)Misc FP Arithmetic.
* fmod: (libc)Remainder Functions.
* fmodf: (libc)Remainder Functions.
* fmodl: (libc)Remainder Functions.
* fmtmsg: (libc)Printing Formatted Messages.
* fnmatch: (libc)Wildcard Matching.
* fopen64: (libc)Opening Streams.
* fopen: (libc)Opening Streams.
* fopencookie: (libc)Streams and Cookies.
* fork: (libc)Creating a Process.
* forkpty: (libc)Pseudo-Terminal Pairs.
* fpathconf: (libc)Pathconf.
* fpclassify: (libc)Floating Point Classes.
* fprintf: (libc)Formatted Output Functions.
* fputc: (libc)Simple Output.
* fputc_unlocked: (libc)Simple Output.
* fputs: (libc)Simple Output.
* fputs_unlocked: (libc)Simple Output.
* fputwc: (libc)Simple Output.
* fputwc_unlocked: (libc)Simple Output.
* fputws: (libc)Simple Output.
* fputws_unlocked: (libc)Simple Output.
* fread: (libc)Block Input/Output.
* fread_unlocked: (libc)Block Input/Output.
* free: (libc)Freeing after Malloc.
* freopen64: (libc)Opening Streams.
* freopen: (libc)Opening Streams.
* frexp: (libc)Normalization Functions.
* frexpf: (libc)Normalization Functions.
* frexpl: (libc)Normalization Functions.
* fscanf: (libc)Formatted Input Functions.
* fseek: (libc)File Positioning.
* fseeko64: (libc)File Positioning.
* fseeko: (libc)File Positioning.
* fsetpos64: (libc)Portable Positioning.
* fsetpos: (libc)Portable Positioning.
* fstat64: (libc)Reading Attributes.
* fstat: (libc)Reading Attributes.
* fsync: (libc)Synchronizing I/O.
* ftell: (libc)File Positioning.
* ftello64: (libc)File Positioning.
* ftello: (libc)File Positioning.
* ftruncate64: (libc)File Size.
* ftruncate: (libc)File Size.
* ftrylockfile: (libc)Streams and Threads.
* ftw64: (libc)Working with Directory Trees.
* ftw: (libc)Working with Directory Trees.
* funlockfile: (libc)Streams and Threads.
* futimes: (libc)File Times.
* fwide: (libc)Streams and I18N.
* fwprintf: (libc)Formatted Output Functions.
* fwrite: (libc)Block Input/Output.
* fwrite_unlocked: (libc)Block Input/Output.
* fwscanf: (libc)Formatted Input Functions.
* gamma: (libc)Special Functions.
* gammaf: (libc)Special Functions.
* gammal: (libc)Special Functions.
* gcvt: (libc)System V Number Conversion.
* get_avphys_pages: (libc)Query Memory Parameters.
* get_current_dir_name: (libc)Working Directory.
* get_nprocs: (libc)Processor Resources.
* get_nprocs_conf: (libc)Processor Resources.
* get_phys_pages: (libc)Query Memory Parameters.
* getauxval: (libc)Auxiliary Vector.
* getc: (libc)Character Input.
* getc_unlocked: (libc)Character Input.
* getchar: (libc)Character Input.
* getchar_unlocked: (libc)Character Input.
* getcontext: (libc)System V contexts.
* getcwd: (libc)Working Directory.
* getdate: (libc)General Time String Parsing.
* getdate_r: (libc)General Time String Parsing.
* getdelim: (libc)Line Input.
* getdomainnname: (libc)Host Identification.
* getegid: (libc)Reading Persona.
* getenv: (libc)Environment Access.
* geteuid: (libc)Reading Persona.
* getfsent: (libc)fstab.
* getfsfile: (libc)fstab.
* getfsspec: (libc)fstab.
* getgid: (libc)Reading Persona.
* getgrent: (libc)Scanning All Groups.
* getgrent_r: (libc)Scanning All Groups.
* getgrgid: (libc)Lookup Group.
* getgrgid_r: (libc)Lookup Group.
* getgrnam: (libc)Lookup Group.
* getgrnam_r: (libc)Lookup Group.
* getgrouplist: (libc)Setting Groups.
* getgroups: (libc)Reading Persona.
* gethostbyaddr: (libc)Host Names.
* gethostbyaddr_r: (libc)Host Names.
* gethostbyname2: (libc)Host Names.
* gethostbyname2_r: (libc)Host Names.
* gethostbyname: (libc)Host Names.
* gethostbyname_r: (libc)Host Names.
* gethostent: (libc)Host Names.
* gethostid: (libc)Host Identification.
* gethostname: (libc)Host Identification.
* getitimer: (libc)Setting an Alarm.
* getline: (libc)Line Input.
* getloadavg: (libc)Processor Resources.
* getlogin: (libc)Who Logged In.
* getmntent: (libc)mtab.
* getmntent_r: (libc)mtab.
* getnetbyaddr: (libc)Networks Database.
* getnetbyname: (libc)Networks Database.
* getnetent: (libc)Networks Database.
* getnetgrent: (libc)Lookup Netgroup.
* getnetgrent_r: (libc)Lookup Netgroup.
* getopt: (libc)Using Getopt.
* getopt_long: (libc)Getopt Long Options.
* getopt_long_only: (libc)Getopt Long Options.
* getpagesize: (libc)Query Memory Parameters.
* getpass: (libc)getpass.
* getpeername: (libc)Who is Connected.
* getpgid: (libc)Process Group Functions.
* getpgrp: (libc)Process Group Functions.
* getpid: (libc)Process Identification.
* getppid: (libc)Process Identification.
* getpriority: (libc)Traditional Scheduling Functions.
* getprotobyname: (libc)Protocols Database.
* getprotobynumber: (libc)Protocols Database.
* getprotoent: (libc)Protocols Database.
* getpt: (libc)Allocation.
* getpwent: (libc)Scanning All Users.
* getpwent_r: (libc)Scanning All Users.
* getpwnam: (libc)Lookup User.
* getpwnam_r: (libc)Lookup User.
* getpwuid: (libc)Lookup User.
* getpwuid_r: (libc)Lookup User.
* getrlimit64: (libc)Limits on Resources.
* getrlimit: (libc)Limits on Resources.
* getrusage: (libc)Resource Usage.
* gets: (libc)Line Input.
* getservbyname: (libc)Services Database.
* getservbyport: (libc)Services Database.
* getservent: (libc)Services Database.
* getsid: (libc)Process Group Functions.
* getsockname: (libc)Reading Address.
* getsockopt: (libc)Socket Option Functions.
* getsubopt: (libc)Suboptions.
* gettext: (libc)Translation with gettext.
* gettimeofday: (libc)High-Resolution Calendar.
* getuid: (libc)Reading Persona.
* getumask: (libc)Setting Permissions.
* getutent: (libc)Manipulating the Database.
* getutent_r: (libc)Manipulating the Database.
* getutid: (libc)Manipulating the Database.
* getutid_r: (libc)Manipulating the Database.
* getutline: (libc)Manipulating the Database.
* getutline_r: (libc)Manipulating the Database.
* getutmp: (libc)XPG Functions.
* getutmpx: (libc)XPG Functions.
* getutxent: (libc)XPG Functions.
* getutxid: (libc)XPG Functions.
* getutxline: (libc)XPG Functions.
* getw: (libc)Character Input.
* getwc: (libc)Character Input.
* getwc_unlocked: (libc)Character Input.
* getwchar: (libc)Character Input.
* getwchar_unlocked: (libc)Character Input.
* getwd: (libc)Working Directory.
* glob64: (libc)Calling Glob.
* glob: (libc)Calling Glob.
* globfree64: (libc)More Flags for Globbing.
* globfree: (libc)More Flags for Globbing.
* gmtime: (libc)Broken-down Time.
* gmtime_r: (libc)Broken-down Time.
* grantpt: (libc)Allocation.
* gsignal: (libc)Signaling Yourself.
* gtty: (libc)BSD Terminal Modes.
* hasmntopt: (libc)mtab.
* hcreate: (libc)Hash Search Function.
* hcreate_r: (libc)Hash Search Function.
* hdestroy: (libc)Hash Search Function.
* hdestroy_r: (libc)Hash Search Function.
* hsearch: (libc)Hash Search Function.
* hsearch_r: (libc)Hash Search Function.
* htonl: (libc)Byte Order.
* htons: (libc)Byte Order.
* hypot: (libc)Exponents and Logarithms.
* hypotf: (libc)Exponents and Logarithms.
* hypotl: (libc)Exponents and Logarithms.
* iconv: (libc)Generic Conversion Interface.
* iconv_close: (libc)Generic Conversion Interface.
* iconv_open: (libc)Generic Conversion Interface.
* if_freenameindex: (libc)Interface Naming.
* if_indextoname: (libc)Interface Naming.
* if_nameindex: (libc)Interface Naming.
* if_nametoindex: (libc)Interface Naming.
* ilogb: (libc)Exponents and Logarithms.
* ilogbf: (libc)Exponents and Logarithms.
* ilogbl: (libc)Exponents and Logarithms.
* imaxabs: (libc)Absolute Value.
* imaxdiv: (libc)Integer Division.
* in6addr_any: (libc)Host Address Data Type.
* in6addr_loopback: (libc)Host Address Data Type.
* index: (libc)Search Functions.
* inet_addr: (libc)Host Address Functions.
* inet_aton: (libc)Host Address Functions.
* inet_lnaof: (libc)Host Address Functions.
* inet_makeaddr: (libc)Host Address Functions.
* inet_netof: (libc)Host Address Functions.
* inet_network: (libc)Host Address Functions.
* inet_ntoa: (libc)Host Address Functions.
* inet_ntop: (libc)Host Address Functions.
* inet_pton: (libc)Host Address Functions.
* initgroups: (libc)Setting Groups.
* initstate: (libc)BSD Random.
* initstate_r: (libc)BSD Random.
* innetgr: (libc)Netgroup Membership.
* ioctl: (libc)IOCTLs.
* isalnum: (libc)Classification of Characters.
* isalpha: (libc)Classification of Characters.
* isascii: (libc)Classification of Characters.
* isatty: (libc)Is It a Terminal.
* isblank: (libc)Classification of Characters.
* iscntrl: (libc)Classification of Characters.
* isdigit: (libc)Classification of Characters.
* isfinite: (libc)Floating Point Classes.
* isgraph: (libc)Classification of Characters.
* isgreater: (libc)FP Comparison Functions.
* isgreaterequal: (libc)FP Comparison Functions.
* isinf: (libc)Floating Point Classes.
* isinff: (libc)Floating Point Classes.
* isinfl: (libc)Floating Point Classes.
* isless: (libc)FP Comparison Functions.
* islessequal: (libc)FP Comparison Functions.
* islessgreater: (libc)FP Comparison Functions.
* islower: (libc)Classification of Characters.
* isnan: (libc)Floating Point Classes.
* isnan: (libc)Floating Point Classes.
* isnanf: (libc)Floating Point Classes.
* isnanl: (libc)Floating Point Classes.
* isnormal: (libc)Floating Point Classes.
* isprint: (libc)Classification of Characters.
* ispunct: (libc)Classification of Characters.
* issignaling: (libc)Floating Point Classes.
* isspace: (libc)Classification of Characters.
* isunordered: (libc)FP Comparison Functions.
* isupper: (libc)Classification of Characters.
* iswalnum: (libc)Classification of Wide Characters.
* iswalpha: (libc)Classification of Wide Characters.
* iswblank: (libc)Classification of Wide Characters.
* iswcntrl: (libc)Classification of Wide Characters.
* iswctype: (libc)Classification of Wide Characters.
* iswdigit: (libc)Classification of Wide Characters.
* iswgraph: (libc)Classification of Wide Characters.
* iswlower: (libc)Classification of Wide Characters.
* iswprint: (libc)Classification of Wide Characters.
* iswpunct: (libc)Classification of Wide Characters.
* iswspace: (libc)Classification of Wide Characters.
* iswupper: (libc)Classification of Wide Characters.
* iswxdigit: (libc)Classification of Wide Characters.
* isxdigit: (libc)Classification of Characters.
* j0: (libc)Special Functions.
* j0f: (libc)Special Functions.
* j0l: (libc)Special Functions.
* j1: (libc)Special Functions.
* j1f: (libc)Special Functions.
* j1l: (libc)Special Functions.
* jn: (libc)Special Functions.
* jnf: (libc)Special Functions.
* jnl: (libc)Special Functions.
* jrand48: (libc)SVID Random.
* jrand48_r: (libc)SVID Random.
* kill: (libc)Signaling Another Process.
* killpg: (libc)Signaling Another Process.
* l64a: (libc)Encode Binary Data.
* labs: (libc)Absolute Value.
* lcong48: (libc)SVID Random.
* lcong48_r: (libc)SVID Random.
* ldexp: (libc)Normalization Functions.
* ldexpf: (libc)Normalization Functions.
* ldexpl: (libc)Normalization Functions.
* ldiv: (libc)Integer Division.
* lfind: (libc)Array Search Function.
* lgamma: (libc)Special Functions.
* lgamma_r: (libc)Special Functions.
* lgammaf: (libc)Special Functions.
* lgammaf_r: (libc)Special Functions.
* lgammal: (libc)Special Functions.
* lgammal_r: (libc)Special Functions.
* link: (libc)Hard Links.
* lio_listio64: (libc)Asynchronous Reads/Writes.
* lio_listio: (libc)Asynchronous Reads/Writes.
* listen: (libc)Listening.
* llabs: (libc)Absolute Value.
* lldiv: (libc)Integer Division.
* llrint: (libc)Rounding Functions.
* llrintf: (libc)Rounding Functions.
* llrintl: (libc)Rounding Functions.
* llround: (libc)Rounding Functions.
* llroundf: (libc)Rounding Functions.
* llroundl: (libc)Rounding Functions.
* localeconv: (libc)The Lame Way to Locale Data.
* localtime: (libc)Broken-down Time.
* localtime_r: (libc)Broken-down Time.
* log10: (libc)Exponents and Logarithms.
* log10f: (libc)Exponents and Logarithms.
* log10l: (libc)Exponents and Logarithms.
* log1p: (libc)Exponents and Logarithms.
* log1pf: (libc)Exponents and Logarithms.
* log1pl: (libc)Exponents and Logarithms.
* log2: (libc)Exponents and Logarithms.
* log2f: (libc)Exponents and Logarithms.
* log2l: (libc)Exponents and Logarithms.
* log: (libc)Exponents and Logarithms.
* logb: (libc)Exponents and Logarithms.
* logbf: (libc)Exponents and Logarithms.
* logbl: (libc)Exponents and Logarithms.
* logf: (libc)Exponents and Logarithms.
* login: (libc)Logging In and Out.
* login_tty: (libc)Logging In and Out.
* logl: (libc)Exponents and Logarithms.
* logout: (libc)Logging In and Out.
* logwtmp: (libc)Logging In and Out.
* longjmp: (libc)Non-Local Details.
* lrand48: (libc)SVID Random.
* lrand48_r: (libc)SVID Random.
* lrint: (libc)Rounding Functions.
* lrintf: (libc)Rounding Functions.
* lrintl: (libc)Rounding Functions.
* lround: (libc)Rounding Functions.
* lroundf: (libc)Rounding Functions.
* lroundl: (libc)Rounding Functions.
* lsearch: (libc)Array Search Function.
* lseek64: (libc)File Position Primitive.
* lseek: (libc)File Position Primitive.
* lstat64: (libc)Reading Attributes.
* lstat: (libc)Reading Attributes.
* lutimes: (libc)File Times.
* madvise: (libc)Memory-mapped I/O.
* makecontext: (libc)System V contexts.
* mallinfo: (libc)Statistics of Malloc.
* malloc: (libc)Basic Allocation.
* mallopt: (libc)Malloc Tunable Parameters.
* mblen: (libc)Non-reentrant Character Conversion.
* mbrlen: (libc)Converting a Character.
* mbrtowc: (libc)Converting a Character.
* mbsinit: (libc)Keeping the state.
* mbsnrtowcs: (libc)Converting Strings.
* mbsrtowcs: (libc)Converting Strings.
* mbstowcs: (libc)Non-reentrant String Conversion.
* mbtowc: (libc)Non-reentrant Character Conversion.
* mcheck: (libc)Heap Consistency Checking.
* memalign: (libc)Aligned Memory Blocks.
* memccpy: (libc)Copying Strings and Arrays.
* memchr: (libc)Search Functions.
* memcmp: (libc)String/Array Comparison.
* memcpy: (libc)Copying Strings and Arrays.
* memfrob: (libc)Trivial Encryption.
* memmem: (libc)Search Functions.
* memmove: (libc)Copying Strings and Arrays.
* mempcpy: (libc)Copying Strings and Arrays.
* memrchr: (libc)Search Functions.
* memset: (libc)Copying Strings and Arrays.
* mkdir: (libc)Creating Directories.
* mkdtemp: (libc)Temporary Files.
* mkfifo: (libc)FIFO Special Files.
* mknod: (libc)Making Special Files.
* mkstemp: (libc)Temporary Files.
* mktemp: (libc)Temporary Files.
* mktime: (libc)Broken-down Time.
* mlock: (libc)Page Lock Functions.
* mlockall: (libc)Page Lock Functions.
* mmap64: (libc)Memory-mapped I/O.
* mmap: (libc)Memory-mapped I/O.
* modf: (libc)Rounding Functions.
* modff: (libc)Rounding Functions.
* modfl: (libc)Rounding Functions.
* mount: (libc)Mount-Unmount-Remount.
* mprobe: (libc)Heap Consistency Checking.
* mrand48: (libc)SVID Random.
* mrand48_r: (libc)SVID Random.
* mremap: (libc)Memory-mapped I/O.
* msync: (libc)Memory-mapped I/O.
* mtrace: (libc)Tracing malloc.
* munlock: (libc)Page Lock Functions.
* munlockall: (libc)Page Lock Functions.
* munmap: (libc)Memory-mapped I/O.
* muntrace: (libc)Tracing malloc.
* nan: (libc)FP Bit Twiddling.
* nanf: (libc)FP Bit Twiddling.
* nanl: (libc)FP Bit Twiddling.
* nanosleep: (libc)Sleeping.
* nearbyint: (libc)Rounding Functions.
* nearbyintf: (libc)Rounding Functions.
* nearbyintl: (libc)Rounding Functions.
* nextafter: (libc)FP Bit Twiddling.
* nextafterf: (libc)FP Bit Twiddling.
* nextafterl: (libc)FP Bit Twiddling.
* nexttoward: (libc)FP Bit Twiddling.
* nexttowardf: (libc)FP Bit Twiddling.
* nexttowardl: (libc)FP Bit Twiddling.
* nftw64: (libc)Working with Directory Trees.
* nftw: (libc)Working with Directory Trees.
* ngettext: (libc)Advanced gettext functions.
* nice: (libc)Traditional Scheduling Functions.
* nl_langinfo: (libc)The Elegant and Fast Way.
* nrand48: (libc)SVID Random.
* nrand48_r: (libc)SVID Random.
* ntohl: (libc)Byte Order.
* ntohs: (libc)Byte Order.
* ntp_adjtime: (libc)High Accuracy Clock.
* ntp_gettime: (libc)High Accuracy Clock.
* obstack_1grow: (libc)Growing Objects.
* obstack_1grow_fast: (libc)Extra Fast Growing.
* obstack_alignment_mask: (libc)Obstacks Data Alignment.
* obstack_alloc: (libc)Allocation in an Obstack.
* obstack_base: (libc)Status of an Obstack.
* obstack_blank: (libc)Growing Objects.
* obstack_blank_fast: (libc)Extra Fast Growing.
* obstack_chunk_size: (libc)Obstack Chunks.
* obstack_copy0: (libc)Allocation in an Obstack.
* obstack_copy: (libc)Allocation in an Obstack.
* obstack_finish: (libc)Growing Objects.
* obstack_free: (libc)Freeing Obstack Objects.
* obstack_grow0: (libc)Growing Objects.
* obstack_grow: (libc)Growing Objects.
* obstack_init: (libc)Preparing for Obstacks.
* obstack_int_grow: (libc)Growing Objects.
* obstack_int_grow_fast: (libc)Extra Fast Growing.
* obstack_next_free: (libc)Status of an Obstack.
* obstack_object_size: (libc)Growing Objects.
* obstack_object_size: (libc)Status of an Obstack.
* obstack_printf: (libc)Dynamic Output.
* obstack_ptr_grow: (libc)Growing Objects.
* obstack_ptr_grow_fast: (libc)Extra Fast Growing.
* obstack_room: (libc)Extra Fast Growing.
* obstack_vprintf: (libc)Variable Arguments Output.
* offsetof: (libc)Structure Measurement.
* on_exit: (libc)Cleanups on Exit.
* open64: (libc)Opening and Closing Files.
* open: (libc)Opening and Closing Files.
* open_memstream: (libc)String Streams.
* opendir: (libc)Opening a Directory.
* openlog: (libc)openlog.
* openpty: (libc)Pseudo-Terminal Pairs.
* parse_printf_format: (libc)Parsing a Template String.
* pathconf: (libc)Pathconf.
* pause: (libc)Using Pause.
* pclose: (libc)Pipe to a Subprocess.
* perror: (libc)Error Messages.
* pipe: (libc)Creating a Pipe.
* popen: (libc)Pipe to a Subprocess.
* posix_fallocate64: (libc)Storage Allocation.
* posix_fallocate: (libc)Storage Allocation.
* posix_memalign: (libc)Aligned Memory Blocks.
* pow10: (libc)Exponents and Logarithms.
* pow10f: (libc)Exponents and Logarithms.
* pow10l: (libc)Exponents and Logarithms.
* pow: (libc)Exponents and Logarithms.
* powf: (libc)Exponents and Logarithms.
* powl: (libc)Exponents and Logarithms.
* pread64: (libc)I/O Primitives.
* pread: (libc)I/O Primitives.
* printf: (libc)Formatted Output Functions.
* printf_size: (libc)Predefined Printf Handlers.
* printf_size_info: (libc)Predefined Printf Handlers.
* psignal: (libc)Signal Messages.
* pthread_getattr_default_np: (libc)Default Thread Attributes.
* pthread_getspecific: (libc)Thread-specific Data.
* pthread_key_create: (libc)Thread-specific Data.
* pthread_key_delete: (libc)Thread-specific Data.
* pthread_setattr_default_np: (libc)Default Thread Attributes.
* pthread_setspecific: (libc)Thread-specific Data.
* ptsname: (libc)Allocation.
* ptsname_r: (libc)Allocation.
* putc: (libc)Simple Output.
* putc_unlocked: (libc)Simple Output.
* putchar: (libc)Simple Output.
* putchar_unlocked: (libc)Simple Output.
* putenv: (libc)Environment Access.
* putpwent: (libc)Writing a User Entry.
* puts: (libc)Simple Output.
* pututline: (libc)Manipulating the Database.
* pututxline: (libc)XPG Functions.
* putw: (libc)Simple Output.
* putwc: (libc)Simple Output.
* putwc_unlocked: (libc)Simple Output.
* putwchar: (libc)Simple Output.
* putwchar_unlocked: (libc)Simple Output.
* pwrite64: (libc)I/O Primitives.
* pwrite: (libc)I/O Primitives.
* qecvt: (libc)System V Number Conversion.
* qecvt_r: (libc)System V Number Conversion.
* qfcvt: (libc)System V Number Conversion.
* qfcvt_r: (libc)System V Number Conversion.
* qgcvt: (libc)System V Number Conversion.
* qsort: (libc)Array Sort Function.
* raise: (libc)Signaling Yourself.
* rand: (libc)ISO Random.
* rand_r: (libc)ISO Random.
* random: (libc)BSD Random.
* random_r: (libc)BSD Random.
* rawmemchr: (libc)Search Functions.
* read: (libc)I/O Primitives.
* readdir64: (libc)Reading/Closing Directory.
* readdir64_r: (libc)Reading/Closing Directory.
* readdir: (libc)Reading/Closing Directory.
* readdir_r: (libc)Reading/Closing Directory.
* readlink: (libc)Symbolic Links.
* readv: (libc)Scatter-Gather.
* realloc: (libc)Changing Block Size.
* realpath: (libc)Symbolic Links.
* recv: (libc)Receiving Data.
* recvfrom: (libc)Receiving Datagrams.
* recvmsg: (libc)Receiving Datagrams.
* regcomp: (libc)POSIX Regexp Compilation.
* regerror: (libc)Regexp Cleanup.
* regexec: (libc)Matching POSIX Regexps.
* regfree: (libc)Regexp Cleanup.
* register_printf_function: (libc)Registering New Conversions.
* remainder: (libc)Remainder Functions.
* remainderf: (libc)Remainder Functions.
* remainderl: (libc)Remainder Functions.
* remove: (libc)Deleting Files.
* rename: (libc)Renaming Files.
* rewind: (libc)File Positioning.
* rewinddir: (libc)Random Access Directory.
* rindex: (libc)Search Functions.
* rint: (libc)Rounding Functions.
* rintf: (libc)Rounding Functions.
* rintl: (libc)Rounding Functions.
* rmdir: (libc)Deleting Files.
* round: (libc)Rounding Functions.
* roundf: (libc)Rounding Functions.
* roundl: (libc)Rounding Functions.
* rpmatch: (libc)Yes-or-No Questions.
* sbrk: (libc)Resizing the Data Segment.
* scalb: (libc)Normalization Functions.
* scalbf: (libc)Normalization Functions.
* scalbl: (libc)Normalization Functions.
* scalbln: (libc)Normalization Functions.
* scalblnf: (libc)Normalization Functions.
* scalblnl: (libc)Normalization Functions.
* scalbn: (libc)Normalization Functions.
* scalbnf: (libc)Normalization Functions.
* scalbnl: (libc)Normalization Functions.
* scandir64: (libc)Scanning Directory Content.
* scandir: (libc)Scanning Directory Content.
* scanf: (libc)Formatted Input Functions.
* sched_get_priority_max: (libc)Basic Scheduling Functions.
* sched_get_priority_min: (libc)Basic Scheduling Functions.
* sched_getaffinity: (libc)CPU Affinity.
* sched_getparam: (libc)Basic Scheduling Functions.
* sched_getscheduler: (libc)Basic Scheduling Functions.
* sched_rr_get_interval: (libc)Basic Scheduling Functions.
* sched_setaffinity: (libc)CPU Affinity.
* sched_setparam: (libc)Basic Scheduling Functions.
* sched_setscheduler: (libc)Basic Scheduling Functions.
* sched_yield: (libc)Basic Scheduling Functions.
* secure_getenv: (libc)Environment Access.
* seed48: (libc)SVID Random.
* seed48_r: (libc)SVID Random.
* seekdir: (libc)Random Access Directory.
* select: (libc)Waiting for I/O.
* sem_close: (libc)Semaphores.
* sem_destroy: (libc)Semaphores.
* sem_getvalue: (libc)Semaphores.
* sem_init: (libc)Semaphores.
* sem_open: (libc)Semaphores.
* sem_post: (libc)Semaphores.
* sem_timedwait: (libc)Semaphores.
* sem_trywait: (libc)Semaphores.
* sem_unlink: (libc)Semaphores.
* sem_wait: (libc)Semaphores.
* semctl: (libc)Semaphores.
* semget: (libc)Semaphores.
* semop: (libc)Semaphores.
* semtimedop: (libc)Semaphores.
* send: (libc)Sending Data.
* sendmsg: (libc)Receiving Datagrams.
* sendto: (libc)Sending Datagrams.
* setbuf: (libc)Controlling Buffering.
* setbuffer: (libc)Controlling Buffering.
* setcontext: (libc)System V contexts.
* setdomainname: (libc)Host Identification.
* setegid: (libc)Setting Groups.
* setenv: (libc)Environment Access.
* seteuid: (libc)Setting User ID.
* setfsent: (libc)fstab.
* setgid: (libc)Setting Groups.
* setgrent: (libc)Scanning All Groups.
* setgroups: (libc)Setting Groups.
* sethostent: (libc)Host Names.
* sethostid: (libc)Host Identification.
* sethostname: (libc)Host Identification.
* setitimer: (libc)Setting an Alarm.
* setjmp: (libc)Non-Local Details.
* setkey: (libc)DES Encryption.
* setkey_r: (libc)DES Encryption.
* setlinebuf: (libc)Controlling Buffering.
* setlocale: (libc)Setting the Locale.
* setlogmask: (libc)setlogmask.
* setmntent: (libc)mtab.
* setnetent: (libc)Networks Database.
* setnetgrent: (libc)Lookup Netgroup.
* setpgid: (libc)Process Group Functions.
* setpgrp: (libc)Process Group Functions.
* setpriority: (libc)Traditional Scheduling Functions.
* setprotoent: (libc)Protocols Database.
* setpwent: (libc)Scanning All Users.
* setregid: (libc)Setting Groups.
* setreuid: (libc)Setting User ID.
* setrlimit64: (libc)Limits on Resources.
* setrlimit: (libc)Limits on Resources.
* setservent: (libc)Services Database.
* setsid: (libc)Process Group Functions.
* setsockopt: (libc)Socket Option Functions.
* setstate: (libc)BSD Random.
* setstate_r: (libc)BSD Random.
* settimeofday: (libc)High-Resolution Calendar.
* setuid: (libc)Setting User ID.
* setutent: (libc)Manipulating the Database.
* setutxent: (libc)XPG Functions.
* setvbuf: (libc)Controlling Buffering.
* shm_open: (libc)Memory-mapped I/O.
* shm_unlink: (libc)Memory-mapped I/O.
* shutdown: (libc)Closing a Socket.
* sigaction: (libc)Advanced Signal Handling.
* sigaddset: (libc)Signal Sets.
* sigaltstack: (libc)Signal Stack.
* sigblock: (libc)BSD Signal Handling.
* sigdelset: (libc)Signal Sets.
* sigemptyset: (libc)Signal Sets.
* sigfillset: (libc)Signal Sets.
* siginterrupt: (libc)BSD Signal Handling.
* sigismember: (libc)Signal Sets.
* siglongjmp: (libc)Non-Local Exits and Signals.
* sigmask: (libc)BSD Signal Handling.
* signal: (libc)Basic Signal Handling.
* signbit: (libc)FP Bit Twiddling.
* significand: (libc)Normalization Functions.
* significandf: (libc)Normalization Functions.
* significandl: (libc)Normalization Functions.
* sigpause: (libc)BSD Signal Handling.
* sigpending: (libc)Checking for Pending Signals.
* sigprocmask: (libc)Process Signal Mask.
* sigsetjmp: (libc)Non-Local Exits and Signals.
* sigsetmask: (libc)BSD Signal Handling.
* sigstack: (libc)Signal Stack.
* sigsuspend: (libc)Sigsuspend.
* sin: (libc)Trig Functions.
* sincos: (libc)Trig Functions.
* sincosf: (libc)Trig Functions.
* sincosl: (libc)Trig Functions.
* sinf: (libc)Trig Functions.
* sinh: (libc)Hyperbolic Functions.
* sinhf: (libc)Hyperbolic Functions.
* sinhl: (libc)Hyperbolic Functions.
* sinl: (libc)Trig Functions.
* sleep: (libc)Sleeping.
* snprintf: (libc)Formatted Output Functions.
* socket: (libc)Creating a Socket.
* socketpair: (libc)Socket Pairs.
* sprintf: (libc)Formatted Output Functions.
* sqrt: (libc)Exponents and Logarithms.
* sqrtf: (libc)Exponents and Logarithms.
* sqrtl: (libc)Exponents and Logarithms.
* srand48: (libc)SVID Random.
* srand48_r: (libc)SVID Random.
* srand: (libc)ISO Random.
* srandom: (libc)BSD Random.
* srandom_r: (libc)BSD Random.
* sscanf: (libc)Formatted Input Functions.
* ssignal: (libc)Basic Signal Handling.
* stat64: (libc)Reading Attributes.
* stat: (libc)Reading Attributes.
* stime: (libc)Simple Calendar Time.
* stpcpy: (libc)Copying Strings and Arrays.
* stpncpy: (libc)Truncating Strings.
* strcasecmp: (libc)String/Array Comparison.
* strcasestr: (libc)Search Functions.
* strcat: (libc)Concatenating Strings.
* strchr: (libc)Search Functions.
* strchrnul: (libc)Search Functions.
* strcmp: (libc)String/Array Comparison.
* strcoll: (libc)Collation Functions.
* strcpy: (libc)Copying Strings and Arrays.
* strcspn: (libc)Search Functions.
* strdup: (libc)Copying Strings and Arrays.
* strdupa: (libc)Copying Strings and Arrays.
* strerror: (libc)Error Messages.
* strerror_r: (libc)Error Messages.
* strfmon: (libc)Formatting Numbers.
* strfry: (libc)strfry.
* strftime: (libc)Formatting Calendar Time.
* strlen: (libc)String Length.
* strncasecmp: (libc)String/Array Comparison.
* strncat: (libc)Truncating Strings.
* strncmp: (libc)String/Array Comparison.
* strncpy: (libc)Truncating Strings.
* strndup: (libc)Truncating Strings.
* strndupa: (libc)Truncating Strings.
* strnlen: (libc)String Length.
* strpbrk: (libc)Search Functions.
* strptime: (libc)Low-Level Time String Parsing.
* strrchr: (libc)Search Functions.
* strsep: (libc)Finding Tokens in a String.
* strsignal: (libc)Signal Messages.
* strspn: (libc)Search Functions.
* strstr: (libc)Search Functions.
* strtod: (libc)Parsing of Floats.
* strtof: (libc)Parsing of Floats.
* strtoimax: (libc)Parsing of Integers.
* strtok: (libc)Finding Tokens in a String.
* strtok_r: (libc)Finding Tokens in a String.
* strtol: (libc)Parsing of Integers.
* strtold: (libc)Parsing of Floats.
* strtoll: (libc)Parsing of Integers.
* strtoq: (libc)Parsing of Integers.
* strtoul: (libc)Parsing of Integers.
* strtoull: (libc)Parsing of Integers.
* strtoumax: (libc)Parsing of Integers.
* strtouq: (libc)Parsing of Integers.
* strverscmp: (libc)String/Array Comparison.
* strxfrm: (libc)Collation Functions.
* stty: (libc)BSD Terminal Modes.
* swapcontext: (libc)System V contexts.
* swprintf: (libc)Formatted Output Functions.
* swscanf: (libc)Formatted Input Functions.
* symlink: (libc)Symbolic Links.
* sync: (libc)Synchronizing I/O.
* syscall: (libc)System Calls.
* sysconf: (libc)Sysconf Definition.
* sysctl: (libc)System Parameters.
* syslog: (libc)syslog; vsyslog.
* system: (libc)Running a Command.
* sysv_signal: (libc)Basic Signal Handling.
* tan: (libc)Trig Functions.
* tanf: (libc)Trig Functions.
* tanh: (libc)Hyperbolic Functions.
* tanhf: (libc)Hyperbolic Functions.
* tanhl: (libc)Hyperbolic Functions.
* tanl: (libc)Trig Functions.
* tcdrain: (libc)Line Control.
* tcflow: (libc)Line Control.
* tcflush: (libc)Line Control.
* tcgetattr: (libc)Mode Functions.
* tcgetpgrp: (libc)Terminal Access Functions.
* tcgetsid: (libc)Terminal Access Functions.
* tcsendbreak: (libc)Line Control.
* tcsetattr: (libc)Mode Functions.
* tcsetpgrp: (libc)Terminal Access Functions.
* tdelete: (libc)Tree Search Function.
* tdestroy: (libc)Tree Search Function.
* telldir: (libc)Random Access Directory.
* tempnam: (libc)Temporary Files.
* textdomain: (libc)Locating gettext catalog.
* tfind: (libc)Tree Search Function.
* tgamma: (libc)Special Functions.
* tgammaf: (libc)Special Functions.
* tgammal: (libc)Special Functions.
* time: (libc)Simple Calendar Time.
* timegm: (libc)Broken-down Time.
* timelocal: (libc)Broken-down Time.
* times: (libc)Processor Time.
* tmpfile64: (libc)Temporary Files.
* tmpfile: (libc)Temporary Files.
* tmpnam: (libc)Temporary Files.
* tmpnam_r: (libc)Temporary Files.
* toascii: (libc)Case Conversion.
* tolower: (libc)Case Conversion.
* toupper: (libc)Case Conversion.
* towctrans: (libc)Wide Character Case Conversion.
* towlower: (libc)Wide Character Case Conversion.
* towupper: (libc)Wide Character Case Conversion.
* trunc: (libc)Rounding Functions.
* truncate64: (libc)File Size.
* truncate: (libc)File Size.
* truncf: (libc)Rounding Functions.
* truncl: (libc)Rounding Functions.
* tsearch: (libc)Tree Search Function.
* ttyname: (libc)Is It a Terminal.
* ttyname_r: (libc)Is It a Terminal.
* twalk: (libc)Tree Search Function.
* tzset: (libc)Time Zone Functions.
* ulimit: (libc)Limits on Resources.
* umask: (libc)Setting Permissions.
* umount2: (libc)Mount-Unmount-Remount.
* umount: (libc)Mount-Unmount-Remount.
* uname: (libc)Platform Type.
* ungetc: (libc)How Unread.
* ungetwc: (libc)How Unread.
* unlink: (libc)Deleting Files.
* unlockpt: (libc)Allocation.
* unsetenv: (libc)Environment Access.
* updwtmp: (libc)Manipulating the Database.
* utime: (libc)File Times.
* utimes: (libc)File Times.
* utmpname: (libc)Manipulating the Database.
* utmpxname: (libc)XPG Functions.
* va_arg: (libc)Argument Macros.
* va_copy: (libc)Argument Macros.
* va_end: (libc)Argument Macros.
* va_start: (libc)Argument Macros.
* valloc: (libc)Aligned Memory Blocks.
* vasprintf: (libc)Variable Arguments Output.
* verr: (libc)Error Messages.
* verrx: (libc)Error Messages.
* versionsort64: (libc)Scanning Directory Content.
* versionsort: (libc)Scanning Directory Content.
* vfork: (libc)Creating a Process.
* vfprintf: (libc)Variable Arguments Output.
* vfscanf: (libc)Variable Arguments Input.
* vfwprintf: (libc)Variable Arguments Output.
* vfwscanf: (libc)Variable Arguments Input.
* vlimit: (libc)Limits on Resources.
* vprintf: (libc)Variable Arguments Output.
* vscanf: (libc)Variable Arguments Input.
* vsnprintf: (libc)Variable Arguments Output.
* vsprintf: (libc)Variable Arguments Output.
* vsscanf: (libc)Variable Arguments Input.
* vswprintf: (libc)Variable Arguments Output.
* vswscanf: (libc)Variable Arguments Input.
* vsyslog: (libc)syslog; vsyslog.
* vtimes: (libc)Resource Usage.
* vwarn: (libc)Error Messages.
* vwarnx: (libc)Error Messages.
* vwprintf: (libc)Variable Arguments Output.
* vwscanf: (libc)Variable Arguments Input.
* wait3: (libc)BSD Wait Functions.
* wait4: (libc)Process Completion.
* wait: (libc)Process Completion.
* waitpid: (libc)Process Completion.
* warn: (libc)Error Messages.
* warnx: (libc)Error Messages.
* wcpcpy: (libc)Copying Strings and Arrays.
* wcpncpy: (libc)Truncating Strings.
* wcrtomb: (libc)Converting a Character.
* wcscasecmp: (libc)String/Array Comparison.
* wcscat: (libc)Concatenating Strings.
* wcschr: (libc)Search Functions.
* wcschrnul: (libc)Search Functions.
* wcscmp: (libc)String/Array Comparison.
* wcscoll: (libc)Collation Functions.
* wcscpy: (libc)Copying Strings and Arrays.
* wcscspn: (libc)Search Functions.
* wcsdup: (libc)Copying Strings and Arrays.
* wcsftime: (libc)Formatting Calendar Time.
* wcslen: (libc)String Length.
* wcsncasecmp: (libc)String/Array Comparison.
* wcsncat: (libc)Truncating Strings.
* wcsncmp: (libc)String/Array Comparison.
* wcsncpy: (libc)Truncating Strings.
* wcsnlen: (libc)String Length.
* wcsnrtombs: (libc)Converting Strings.
* wcspbrk: (libc)Search Functions.
* wcsrchr: (libc)Search Functions.
* wcsrtombs: (libc)Converting Strings.
* wcsspn: (libc)Search Functions.
* wcsstr: (libc)Search Functions.
* wcstod: (libc)Parsing of Floats.
* wcstof: (libc)Parsing of Floats.
* wcstoimax: (libc)Parsing of Integers.
* wcstok: (libc)Finding Tokens in a String.
* wcstol: (libc)Parsing of Integers.
* wcstold: (libc)Parsing of Floats.
* wcstoll: (libc)Parsing of Integers.
* wcstombs: (libc)Non-reentrant String Conversion.
* wcstoq: (libc)Parsing of Integers.
* wcstoul: (libc)Parsing of Integers.
* wcstoull: (libc)Parsing of Integers.
* wcstoumax: (libc)Parsing of Integers.
* wcstouq: (libc)Parsing of Integers.
* wcswcs: (libc)Search Functions.
* wcsxfrm: (libc)Collation Functions.
* wctob: (libc)Converting a Character.
* wctomb: (libc)Non-reentrant Character Conversion.
* wctrans: (libc)Wide Character Case Conversion.
* wctype: (libc)Classification of Wide Characters.
* wmemchr: (libc)Search Functions.
* wmemcmp: (libc)String/Array Comparison.
* wmemcpy: (libc)Copying Strings and Arrays.
* wmemmove: (libc)Copying Strings and Arrays.
* wmempcpy: (libc)Copying Strings and Arrays.
* wmemset: (libc)Copying Strings and Arrays.
* wordexp: (libc)Calling Wordexp.
* wordfree: (libc)Calling Wordexp.
* wprintf: (libc)Formatted Output Functions.
* write: (libc)I/O Primitives.
* writev: (libc)Scatter-Gather.
* wscanf: (libc)Formatted Input Functions.
* y0: (libc)Special Functions.
* y0f: (libc)Special Functions.
* y0l: (libc)Special Functions.
* y1: (libc)Special Functions.
* y1f: (libc)Special Functions.
* y1l: (libc)Special Functions.
* yn: (libc)Special Functions.
* ynf: (libc)Special Functions.
* ynl: (libc)Special Functions.
END-INFO-DIR-ENTRY


File: libc.info,  Node: Extending NSS,  Prev: NSS Module Internals,  Up: Name Service Switch

29.4 Extending NSS
==================

One of the advantages of NSS mentioned above is that it can be extended
quite easily.  There are two ways in which the extension can happen:
adding another database or adding another service.  The former is
normally done only by the C library developers.  It is here only
important to remember that adding another database is independent from
adding another service because a service need not support all databases
or lookup functions.

   A designer/implementor of a new service is therefore free to choose
the databases s/he is interested in and leave the rest for later (or
completely aside).

* Menu:

* Adding another Service to NSS::  What is to do to add a new service.
* NSS Module Function Internals::  Guidelines for writing new NSS
                                        service functions.


File: libc.info,  Node: Adding another Service to NSS,  Next: NSS Module Function Internals,  Prev: Extending NSS,  Up: Extending NSS

29.4.1 Adding another Service to NSS
------------------------------------

The sources for a new service need not (and should not) be part of the
GNU C Library itself.  The developer retains complete control over the
sources and its development.  The links between the C library and the
new service module consists solely of the interface functions.

   Each module is designed following a specific interface specification.
For now the version is 2 (the interface in version 1 was not adequate)
and this manifests in the version number of the shared library object of
the NSS modules: they have the extension ‘.2’.  If the interface changes
again in an incompatible way, this number will be increased.  Modules
using the old interface will still be usable.

   Developers of a new service will have to make sure that their module
is created using the correct interface number.  This means the file
itself must have the correct name and on ELF systems the "soname"
(Shared Object Name) must also have this number.  Building a module from
a bunch of object files on an ELF system using GNU CC could be done like
this:

     gcc -shared -o libnss_NAME.so.2 -Wl,-soname,libnss_NAME.so.2 OBJECTS

*note Options for Linking: (gcc)Link Options, to learn more about this
command line.

   To use the new module the library must be able to find it.  This can
be achieved by using options for the dynamic linker so that it will
search the directory where the binary is placed.  For an ELF system this
could be done by adding the wanted directory to the value of
‘LD_LIBRARY_PATH’.

   But this is not always possible since some programs (those which run
under IDs which do not belong to the user) ignore this variable.
Therefore the stable version of the module should be placed into a
directory which is searched by the dynamic linker.  Normally this should
be the directory ‘$prefix/lib’, where ‘$prefix’ corresponds to the value
given to configure using the ‘--prefix’ option.  But be careful: this
should only be done if it is clear the module does not cause any harm.
System administrators should be careful.


File: libc.info,  Node: NSS Module Function Internals,  Prev: Adding another Service to NSS,  Up: Extending NSS

29.4.2 Internals of the NSS Module Functions
--------------------------------------------

Until now we only provided the syntactic interface for the functions in
the NSS module.  In fact there is not much more we can say since the
implementation obviously is different for each function.  But a few
general rules must be followed by all functions.

   In fact there are four kinds of different functions which may appear
in the interface.  All derive from the traditional ones for system
databases.  DB in the following table is normally an abbreviation for
the database (e.g., it is ‘pw’ for the password database).

‘enum nss_status _nss_DATABASE_setDBent (void)’
     This function prepares the service for following operations.  For a
     simple file based lookup this means files could be opened, for
     other services this function simply is a noop.

     One special case for this function is that it takes an additional
     argument for some DATABASEs (i.e., the interface is ‘int setDBent
     (int)’).  *note Host Names::, which describes the ‘sethostent’
     function.

     The return value should be NSS_STATUS_SUCCESS or according to the
     table above in case of an error (*note NSS Modules Interface::).

‘enum nss_status _nss_DATABASE_endDBent (void)’
     This function simply closes all files which are still open or
     removes buffer caches.  If there are no files or buffers to remove
     this is again a simple noop.

     There normally is no return value different to NSS_STATUS_SUCCESS.

‘enum nss_status _nss_DATABASE_getDBent_r (STRUCTURE *result, char *buffer, size_t buflen, int *errnop)’
     Since this function will be called several times in a row to
     retrieve one entry after the other it must keep some kind of state.
     But this also means the functions are not really reentrant.  They
     are reentrant only in that simultaneous calls to this function will
     not try to write the retrieved data in the same place (as it would
     be the case for the non-reentrant functions); instead, it writes to
     the structure pointed to by the RESULT parameter.  But the calls
     share a common state and in the case of a file access this means
     they return neighboring entries in the file.

     The buffer of length BUFLEN pointed to by BUFFER can be used for
     storing some additional data for the result.  It is _not_
     guaranteed that the same buffer will be passed for the next call of
     this function.  Therefore one must not misuse this buffer to save
     some state information from one call to another.

     Before the function returns the implementation should store the
     value of the local ERRNO variable in the variable pointed to be
     ERRNOP.  This is important to guarantee the module working in
     statically linked programs.

     As explained above this function could also have an additional last
     argument.  This depends on the database used; it happens only for
     ‘host’ and ‘networks’.

     The function shall return ‘NSS_STATUS_SUCCESS’ as long as there are
     more entries.  When the last entry was read it should return
     ‘NSS_STATUS_NOTFOUND’.  When the buffer given as an argument is too
     small for the data to be returned ‘NSS_STATUS_TRYAGAIN’ should be
     returned.  When the service was not formerly initialized by a call
     to ‘_nss_DATABASE_setDBent’ all return value allowed for this
     function can also be returned here.

‘enum nss_status _nss_DATABASE_getDBbyXX_r (PARAMS, STRUCTURE *result, char *buffer, size_t buflen, int *errnop)’
     This function shall return the entry from the database which is
     addressed by the PARAMS.  The type and number of these arguments
     vary.  It must be individually determined by looking to the
     user-level interface functions.  All arguments given to the
     non-reentrant version are here described by PARAMS.

     The result must be stored in the structure pointed to by RESULT.
     If there is additional data to return (say strings, where the
     RESULT structure only contains pointers) the function must use the
     BUFFER or length BUFLEN.  There must not be any references to
     non-constant global data.

     The implementation of this function should honor the STAYOPEN flag
     set by the ‘setDBent’ function whenever this makes sense.

     Before the function returns the implementation should store the
     value of the local ERRNO variable in the variable pointed to be
     ERRNOP.  This is important to guarantee the module working in
     statically linked programs.

     Again, this function takes an additional last argument for the
     ‘host’ and ‘networks’ database.

     The return value should as always follow the rules given above
     (*note NSS Modules Interface::).


File: libc.info,  Node: Users and Groups,  Next: System Management,  Prev: Name Service Switch,  Up: Top

30 Users and Groups
*******************

Every user who can log in on the system is identified by a unique number
called the "user ID". Each process has an effective user ID which says
which user’s access permissions it has.

   Users are classified into "groups" for access control purposes.  Each
process has one or more "group ID values" which say which groups the
process can use for access to files.

   The effective user and group IDs of a process collectively form its
"persona".  This determines which files the process can access.
Normally, a process inherits its persona from the parent process, but
under special circumstances a process can change its persona and thus
change its access permissions.

   Each file in the system also has a user ID and a group ID. Access
control works by comparing the user and group IDs of the file with those
of the running process.

   The system keeps a database of all the registered users, and another
database of all the defined groups.  There are library functions you can
use to examine these databases.

* Menu:

* User and Group IDs::          Each user has a unique numeric ID;
				 likewise for groups.
* Process Persona::             The user IDs and group IDs of a process.
* Why Change Persona::          Why a program might need to change
				 its user and/or group IDs.
* How Change Persona::          Changing the user and group IDs.
* Reading Persona::             How to examine the user and group IDs.

* Setting User ID::             Functions for setting the user ID.
* Setting Groups::              Functions for setting the group IDs.

* Enable/Disable Setuid::       Turning setuid access on and off.
* Setuid Program Example::      The pertinent parts of one sample program.
* Tips for Setuid::             How to avoid granting unlimited access.

* Who Logged In::               Getting the name of the user who logged in,
				 or of the real user ID of the current process.

* User Accounting Database::    Keeping information about users and various
                                 actions in databases.

* User Database::               Functions and data structures for
                        	 accessing the user database.
* Group Database::              Functions and data structures for
                        	 accessing the group database.
* Database Example::            Example program showing the use of database
				 inquiry functions.
* Netgroup Database::           Functions for accessing the netgroup database.


File: libc.info,  Node: User and Group IDs,  Next: Process Persona,  Up: Users and Groups

30.1 User and Group IDs
=======================

Each user account on a computer system is identified by a "user name"
(or "login name") and "user ID". Normally, each user name has a unique
user ID, but it is possible for several login names to have the same
user ID. The user names and corresponding user IDs are stored in a data
base which you can access as described in *note User Database::.

   Users are classified in "groups".  Each user name belongs to one
"default group" and may also belong to any number of "supplementary
groups".  Users who are members of the same group can share resources
(such as files) that are not accessible to users who are not a member of
that group.  Each group has a "group name" and "group ID". *Note Group
Database::, for how to find information about a group ID or group name.


File: libc.info,  Node: Process Persona,  Next: Why Change Persona,  Prev: User and Group IDs,  Up: Users and Groups

30.2 The Persona of a Process
=============================

At any time, each process has an "effective user ID", a "effective group
ID", and a set of "supplementary group IDs".  These IDs determine the
privileges of the process.  They are collectively called the "persona"
of the process, because they determine “who it is” for purposes of
access control.

   Your login shell starts out with a persona which consists of your
user ID, your default group ID, and your supplementary group IDs (if you
are in more than one group).  In normal circumstances, all your other
processes inherit these values.

   A process also has a "real user ID" which identifies the user who
created the process, and a "real group ID" which identifies that user’s
default group.  These values do not play a role in access control, so we
do not consider them part of the persona.  But they are also important.

   Both the real and effective user ID can be changed during the
lifetime of a process.  *Note Why Change Persona::.

   For details on how a process’s effective user ID and group IDs affect
its permission to access files, see *note Access Permission::.

   The effective user ID of a process also controls permissions for
sending signals using the ‘kill’ function.  *Note Signaling Another
Process::.

   Finally, there are many operations which can only be performed by a
process whose effective user ID is zero.  A process with this user ID is
a "privileged process".  Commonly the user name ‘root’ is associated
with user ID 0, but there may be other user names with this ID.


File: libc.info,  Node: Why Change Persona,  Next: How Change Persona,  Prev: Process Persona,  Up: Users and Groups

30.3 Why Change the Persona of a Process?
=========================================

The most obvious situation where it is necessary for a process to change
its user and/or group IDs is the ‘login’ program.  When ‘login’ starts
running, its user ID is ‘root’.  Its job is to start a shell whose user
and group IDs are those of the user who is logging in.  (To accomplish
this fully, ‘login’ must set the real user and group IDs as well as its
persona.  But this is a special case.)

   The more common case of changing persona is when an ordinary user
program needs access to a resource that wouldn’t ordinarily be
accessible to the user actually running it.

   For example, you may have a file that is controlled by your program
but that shouldn’t be read or modified directly by other users, either
because it implements some kind of locking protocol, or because you want
to preserve the integrity or privacy of the information it contains.
This kind of restricted access can be implemented by having the program
change its effective user or group ID to match that of the resource.

   Thus, imagine a game program that saves scores in a file.  The game
program itself needs to be able to update this file no matter who is
running it, but if users can write the file without going through the
game, they can give themselves any scores they like.  Some people
consider this undesirable, or even reprehensible.  It can be prevented
by creating a new user ID and login name (say, ‘games’) to own the
scores file, and make the file writable only by this user.  Then, when
the game program wants to update this file, it can change its effective
user ID to be that for ‘games’.  In effect, the program must adopt the
persona of ‘games’ so it can write the scores file.


File: libc.info,  Node: How Change Persona,  Next: Reading Persona,  Prev: Why Change Persona,  Up: Users and Groups

30.4 How an Application Can Change Persona
==========================================

The ability to change the persona of a process can be a source of
unintentional privacy violations, or even intentional abuse.  Because of
the potential for problems, changing persona is restricted to special
circumstances.

   You can’t arbitrarily set your user ID or group ID to anything you
want; only privileged processes can do that.  Instead, the normal way
for a program to change its persona is that it has been set up in
advance to change to a particular user or group.  This is the function
of the setuid and setgid bits of a file’s access mode.  *Note Permission
Bits::.

   When the setuid bit of an executable file is on, executing that file
gives the process a third user ID: the "file user ID". This ID is set to
the owner ID of the file.  The system then changes the effective user ID
to the file user ID. The real user ID remains as it was.  Likewise, if
the setgid bit is on, the process is given a "file group ID" equal to
the group ID of the file, and its effective group ID is changed to the
file group ID.

   If a process has a file ID (user or group), then it can at any time
change its effective ID to its real ID and back to its file ID. Programs
use this feature to relinquish their special privileges except when they
actually need them.  This makes it less likely that they can be tricked
into doing something inappropriate with their privileges.

   *Portability Note:* Older systems do not have file IDs.  To determine
if a system has this feature, you can test the compiler define
‘_POSIX_SAVED_IDS’.  (In the POSIX standard, file IDs are known as saved
IDs.)

   *Note File Attributes::, for a more general discussion of file modes
and accessibility.


File: libc.info,  Node: Reading Persona,  Next: Setting User ID,  Prev: How Change Persona,  Up: Users and Groups

30.5 Reading the Persona of a Process
=====================================

Here are detailed descriptions of the functions for reading the user and
group IDs of a process, both real and effective.  To use these
facilities, you must include the header files ‘sys/types.h’ and
‘unistd.h’.

 -- Data Type: uid_t
     This is an integer data type used to represent user IDs.  In the
     GNU C Library, this is an alias for ‘unsigned int’.

 -- Data Type: gid_t
     This is an integer data type used to represent group IDs.  In the
     GNU C Library, this is an alias for ‘unsigned int’.

 -- Function: uid_t getuid (void)
     Preliminary: | MT-Safe | AS-Safe | AC-Safe | *Note POSIX Safety
     Concepts::.

     The ‘getuid’ function returns the real user ID of the process.

 -- Function: gid_t getgid (void)
     Preliminary: | MT-Safe | AS-Safe | AC-Safe | *Note POSIX Safety
     Concepts::.

     The ‘getgid’ function returns the real group ID of the process.

 -- Function: uid_t geteuid (void)
     Preliminary: | MT-Safe | AS-Safe | AC-Safe | *Note POSIX Safety
     Concepts::.

     The ‘geteuid’ function returns the effective user ID of the
     process.

 -- Function: gid_t getegid (void)
     Preliminary: | MT-Safe | AS-Safe | AC-Safe | *Note POSIX Safety
     Concepts::.

     The ‘getegid’ function returns the effective group ID of the
     process.

 -- Function: int getgroups (int COUNT, gid_t *GROUPS)
     Preliminary: | MT-Safe | AS-Safe | AC-Safe | *Note POSIX Safety
     Concepts::.

     The ‘getgroups’ function is used to inquire about the supplementary
     group IDs of the process.  Up to COUNT of these group IDs are
     stored in the array GROUPS; the return value from the function is
     the number of group IDs actually stored.  If COUNT is smaller than
     the total number of supplementary group IDs, then ‘getgroups’
     returns a value of ‘-1’ and ‘errno’ is set to ‘EINVAL’.

     If COUNT is zero, then ‘getgroups’ just returns the total number of
     supplementary group IDs.  On systems that do not support
     supplementary groups, this will always be zero.

     Here’s how to use ‘getgroups’ to read all the supplementary group
     IDs:

          gid_t *
          read_all_groups (void)
          {
            int ngroups = getgroups (0, NULL);
            gid_t *groups
              = (gid_t *) xmalloc (ngroups * sizeof (gid_t));
            int val = getgroups (ngroups, groups);
            if (val < 0)
              {
                free (groups);
                return NULL;
              }
            return groups;
          }


File: libc.info,  Node: Setting User ID,  Next: Setting Groups,  Prev: Reading Persona,  Up: Users and Groups

30.6 Setting the User ID
========================

This section describes the functions for altering the user ID (real
and/or effective) of a process.  To use these facilities, you must
include the header files ‘sys/types.h’ and ‘unistd.h’.

 -- Function: int seteuid (uid_t NEWEUID)
     Preliminary: | MT-Safe | AS-Unsafe lock | AC-Unsafe lock | *Note
     POSIX Safety Concepts::.

     This function sets the effective user ID of a process to NEWEUID,
     provided that the process is allowed to change its effective user
     ID. A privileged process (effective user ID zero) can change its
     effective user ID to any legal value.  An unprivileged process with
     a file user ID can change its effective user ID to its real user ID
     or to its file user ID. Otherwise, a process may not change its
     effective user ID at all.

     The ‘seteuid’ function returns a value of ‘0’ to indicate
     successful completion, and a value of ‘-1’ to indicate an error.
     The following ‘errno’ error conditions are defined for this
     function:

     ‘EINVAL’
          The value of the NEWEUID argument is invalid.

     ‘EPERM’
          The process may not change to the specified ID.

     Older systems (those without the ‘_POSIX_SAVED_IDS’ feature) do not
     have this function.

 -- Function: int setuid (uid_t NEWUID)
     Preliminary: | MT-Safe | AS-Unsafe lock | AC-Unsafe lock | *Note
     POSIX Safety Concepts::.

     If the calling process is privileged, this function sets both the
     real and effective user ID of the process to NEWUID.  It also
     deletes the file user ID of the process, if any.  NEWUID may be any
     legal value.  (Once this has been done, there is no way to recover
     the old effective user ID.)

     If the process is not privileged, and the system supports the
     ‘_POSIX_SAVED_IDS’ feature, then this function behaves like
     ‘seteuid’.

     The return values and error conditions are the same as for
     ‘seteuid’.

 -- Function: int setreuid (uid_t RUID, uid_t EUID)
     Preliminary: | MT-Safe | AS-Unsafe lock | AC-Unsafe lock | *Note
     POSIX Safety Concepts::.

     This function sets the real user ID of the process to RUID and the
     effective user ID to EUID.  If RUID is ‘-1’, it means not to change
     the real user ID; likewise if EUID is ‘-1’, it means not to change
     the effective user ID.

     The ‘setreuid’ function exists for compatibility with 4.3 BSD Unix,
     which does not support file IDs.  You can use this function to swap
     the effective and real user IDs of the process.  (Privileged
     processes are not limited to this particular usage.)  If file IDs
     are supported, you should use that feature instead of this
     function.  *Note Enable/Disable Setuid::.

     The return value is ‘0’ on success and ‘-1’ on failure.  The
     following ‘errno’ error conditions are defined for this function:

     ‘EPERM’
          The process does not have the appropriate privileges; you do
          not have permission to change to the specified ID.


File: libc.info,  Node: Setting Groups,  Next: Enable/Disable Setuid,  Prev: Setting User ID,  Up: Users and Groups

30.7 Setting the Group IDs
==========================

This section describes the functions for altering the group IDs (real
and effective) of a process.  To use these facilities, you must include
the header files ‘sys/types.h’ and ‘unistd.h’.

 -- Function: int setegid (gid_t NEWGID)
     Preliminary: | MT-Safe | AS-Unsafe lock | AC-Unsafe lock | *Note
     POSIX Safety Concepts::.

     This function sets the effective group ID of the process to NEWGID,
     provided that the process is allowed to change its group ID. Just
     as with ‘seteuid’, if the process is privileged it may change its
     effective group ID to any value; if it isn’t, but it has a file
     group ID, then it may change to its real group ID or file group ID;
     otherwise it may not change its effective group ID.

     Note that a process is only privileged if its effective _user_ ID
     is zero.  The effective group ID only affects access permissions.

     The return values and error conditions for ‘setegid’ are the same
     as those for ‘seteuid’.

     This function is only present if ‘_POSIX_SAVED_IDS’ is defined.

 -- Function: int setgid (gid_t NEWGID)
     Preliminary: | MT-Safe | AS-Unsafe lock | AC-Unsafe lock | *Note
     POSIX Safety Concepts::.

     This function sets both the real and effective group ID of the
     process to NEWGID, provided that the process is privileged.  It
     also deletes the file group ID, if any.

     If the process is not privileged, then ‘setgid’ behaves like
     ‘setegid’.

     The return values and error conditions for ‘setgid’ are the same as
     those for ‘seteuid’.

 -- Function: int setregid (gid_t RGID, gid_t EGID)
     Preliminary: | MT-Safe | AS-Unsafe lock | AC-Unsafe lock | *Note
     POSIX Safety Concepts::.

     This function sets the real group ID of the process to RGID and the
     effective group ID to EGID.  If RGID is ‘-1’, it means not to
     change the real group ID; likewise if EGID is ‘-1’, it means not to
     change the effective group ID.

     The ‘setregid’ function is provided for compatibility with 4.3 BSD
     Unix, which does not support file IDs.  You can use this function
     to swap the effective and real group IDs of the process.
     (Privileged processes are not limited to this usage.)  If file IDs
     are supported, you should use that feature instead of using this
     function.  *Note Enable/Disable Setuid::.

     The return values and error conditions for ‘setregid’ are the same
     as those for ‘setreuid’.

   ‘setuid’ and ‘setgid’ behave differently depending on whether the
effective user ID at the time is zero.  If it is not zero, they behave
like ‘seteuid’ and ‘setegid’.  If it is, they change both effective and
real IDs and delete the file ID. To avoid confusion, we recommend you
always use ‘seteuid’ and ‘setegid’ except when you know the effective
user ID is zero and your intent is to change the persona permanently.
This case is rare—most of the programs that need it, such as ‘login’ and
‘su’, have already been written.

   Note that if your program is setuid to some user other than ‘root’,
there is no way to drop privileges permanently.

   The system also lets privileged processes change their supplementary
group IDs.  To use ‘setgroups’ or ‘initgroups’, your programs should
include the header file ‘grp.h’.

 -- Function: int setgroups (size_t COUNT, const gid_t *GROUPS)
     Preliminary: | MT-Safe | AS-Unsafe lock | AC-Unsafe lock | *Note
     POSIX Safety Concepts::.

     This function sets the process’s supplementary group IDs.  It can
     only be called from privileged processes.  The COUNT argument
     specifies the number of group IDs in the array GROUPS.

     This function returns ‘0’ if successful and ‘-1’ on error.  The
     following ‘errno’ error conditions are defined for this function:

     ‘EPERM’
          The calling process is not privileged.

 -- Function: int initgroups (const char *USER, gid_t GROUP)
     Preliminary: | MT-Safe locale | AS-Unsafe dlopen plugin heap lock |
     AC-Unsafe corrupt mem fd lock | *Note POSIX Safety Concepts::.

     The ‘initgroups’ function sets the process’s supplementary group
     IDs to be the normal default for the user name USER.  The group
     GROUP is automatically included.

     This function works by scanning the group database for all the
     groups USER belongs to.  It then calls ‘setgroups’ with the list it
     has constructed.

     The return values and error conditions are the same as for
     ‘setgroups’.

   If you are interested in the groups a particular user belongs to, but
do not want to change the process’s supplementary group IDs, you can use
‘getgrouplist’.  To use ‘getgrouplist’, your programs should include the
header file ‘grp.h’.

 -- Function: int getgrouplist (const char *USER, gid_t GROUP, gid_t
          *GROUPS, int *NGROUPS)
     Preliminary: | MT-Safe locale | AS-Unsafe dlopen plugin heap lock |
     AC-Unsafe corrupt mem fd lock | *Note POSIX Safety Concepts::.

     The ‘getgrouplist’ function scans the group database for all the
     groups USER belongs to.  Up to *NGROUPS group IDs corresponding to
     these groups are stored in the array GROUPS; the return value from
     the function is the number of group IDs actually stored.  If
     *NGROUPS is smaller than the total number of groups found, then
     ‘getgrouplist’ returns a value of ‘-1’ and stores the actual number
     of groups in *NGROUPS.  The group GROUP is automatically included
     in the list of groups returned by ‘getgrouplist’.

     Here’s how to use ‘getgrouplist’ to read all supplementary groups
     for USER:

          gid_t *
          supplementary_groups (char *user)
          {
            int ngroups = 16;
            gid_t *groups
              = (gid_t *) xmalloc (ngroups * sizeof (gid_t));
            struct passwd *pw = getpwnam (user);

            if (pw == NULL)
              return NULL;

            if (getgrouplist (pw->pw_name, pw->pw_gid, groups, &ngroups) < 0)
              {
                groups = xrealloc (ngroups * sizeof (gid_t));
                getgrouplist (pw->pw_name, pw->pw_gid, groups, &ngroups);
              }
            return groups;
          }


File: libc.info,  Node: Enable/Disable Setuid,  Next: Setuid Program Example,  Prev: Setting Groups,  Up: Users and Groups

30.8 Enabling and Disabling Setuid Access
=========================================

A typical setuid program does not need its special access all of the
time.  It’s a good idea to turn off this access when it isn’t needed, so
it can’t possibly give unintended access.

   If the system supports the ‘_POSIX_SAVED_IDS’ feature, you can
accomplish this with ‘seteuid’.  When the game program starts, its real
user ID is ‘jdoe’, its effective user ID is ‘games’, and its saved user
ID is also ‘games’.  The program should record both user ID values once
at the beginning, like this:

     user_user_id = getuid ();
     game_user_id = geteuid ();

   Then it can turn off game file access with

     seteuid (user_user_id);

and turn it on with

     seteuid (game_user_id);

Throughout this process, the real user ID remains ‘jdoe’ and the file
user ID remains ‘games’, so the program can always set its effective
user ID to either one.

   On other systems that don’t support file user IDs, you can turn
setuid access on and off by using ‘setreuid’ to swap the real and
effective user IDs of the process, as follows:

     setreuid (geteuid (), getuid ());

This special case is always allowed—it cannot fail.

   Why does this have the effect of toggling the setuid access?  Suppose
a game program has just started, and its real user ID is ‘jdoe’ while
its effective user ID is ‘games’.  In this state, the game can write the
scores file.  If it swaps the two uids, the real becomes ‘games’ and the
effective becomes ‘jdoe’; now the program has only ‘jdoe’ access.
Another swap brings ‘games’ back to the effective user ID and restores
access to the scores file.

   In order to handle both kinds of systems, test for the saved user ID
feature with a preprocessor conditional, like this:

     #ifdef _POSIX_SAVED_IDS
       seteuid (user_user_id);
     #else
       setreuid (geteuid (), getuid ());
     #endif


File: libc.info,  Node: Setuid Program Example,  Next: Tips for Setuid,  Prev: Enable/Disable Setuid,  Up: Users and Groups

30.9 Setuid Program Example
===========================

Here’s an example showing how to set up a program that changes its
effective user ID.

   This is part of a game program called ‘caber-toss’ that manipulates a
file ‘scores’ that should be writable only by the game program itself.
The program assumes that its executable file will be installed with the
setuid bit set and owned by the same user as the ‘scores’ file.
Typically, a system administrator will set up an account like ‘games’
for this purpose.

   The executable file is given mode ‘4755’, so that doing an ‘ls -l’ on
it produces output like:

     -rwsr-xr-x   1 games    184422 Jul 30 15:17 caber-toss

The setuid bit shows up in the file modes as the ‘s’.

   The scores file is given mode ‘644’, and doing an ‘ls -l’ on it
shows:

     -rw-r--r--  1 games           0 Jul 31 15:33 scores

   Here are the parts of the program that show how to set up the changed
user ID. This program is conditionalized so that it makes use of the
file IDs feature if it is supported, and otherwise uses ‘setreuid’ to
swap the effective and real user IDs.

     #include <stdio.h>
     #include <sys/types.h>
     #include <unistd.h>
     #include <stdlib.h>


     /* Remember the effective and real UIDs. */

     static uid_t euid, ruid;


     /* Restore the effective UID to its original value. */

     void
     do_setuid (void)
     {
       int status;

     #ifdef _POSIX_SAVED_IDS
       status = seteuid (euid);
     #else
       status = setreuid (ruid, euid);
     #endif
       if (status < 0) {
         fprintf (stderr, "Couldn't set uid.\n");
         exit (status);
         }
     }


     /* Set the effective UID to the real UID. */

     void
     undo_setuid (void)
     {
       int status;

     #ifdef _POSIX_SAVED_IDS
       status = seteuid (ruid);
     #else
       status = setreuid (euid, ruid);
     #endif
       if (status < 0) {
         fprintf (stderr, "Couldn't set uid.\n");
         exit (status);
         }
     }

     /* Main program. */

     int
     main (void)
     {
       /* Remember the real and effective user IDs.  */
       ruid = getuid ();
       euid = geteuid ();
       undo_setuid ();

       /* Do the game and record the score.  */
       …
     }

   Notice how the first thing the ‘main’ function does is to set the
effective user ID back to the real user ID. This is so that any other
file accesses that are performed while the user is playing the game use
the real user ID for determining permissions.  Only when the program
needs to open the scores file does it switch back to the file user ID,
like this:

     /* Record the score. */

     int
     record_score (int score)
     {
       FILE *stream;
       char *myname;

       /* Open the scores file. */
       do_setuid ();
       stream = fopen (SCORES_FILE, "a");
       undo_setuid ();

       /* Write the score to the file. */
       if (stream)
         {
           myname = cuserid (NULL);
           if (score < 0)
             fprintf (stream, "%10s: Couldn't lift the caber.\n", myname);
           else
             fprintf (stream, "%10s: %d feet.\n", myname, score);
           fclose (stream);
           return 0;
         }
       else
         return -1;
     }


File: libc.info,  Node: Tips for Setuid,  Next: Who Logged In,  Prev: Setuid Program Example,  Up: Users and Groups

30.10 Tips for Writing Setuid Programs
======================================

It is easy for setuid programs to give the user access that isn’t
intended—in fact, if you want to avoid this, you need to be careful.
Here are some guidelines for preventing unintended access and minimizing
its consequences when it does occur:

   • Don’t have ‘setuid’ programs with privileged user IDs such as
     ‘root’ unless it is absolutely necessary.  If the resource is
     specific to your particular program, it’s better to define a new,
     nonprivileged user ID or group ID just to manage that resource.
     It’s better if you can write your program to use a special group
     than a special user.

   • Be cautious about using the ‘exec’ functions in combination with
     changing the effective user ID. Don’t let users of your program
     execute arbitrary programs under a changed user ID. Executing a
     shell is especially bad news.  Less obviously, the ‘execlp’ and
     ‘execvp’ functions are a potential risk (since the program they
     execute depends on the user’s ‘PATH’ environment variable).

     If you must ‘exec’ another program under a changed ID, specify an
     absolute file name (*note File Name Resolution::) for the
     executable, and make sure that the protections on that executable
     and _all_ containing directories are such that ordinary users
     cannot replace it with some other program.

     You should also check the arguments passed to the program to make
     sure they do not have unexpected effects.  Likewise, you should
     examine the environment variables.  Decide which arguments and
     variables are safe, and reject all others.

     You should never use ‘system’ in a privileged program, because it
     invokes a shell.

   • Only use the user ID controlling the resource in the part of the
     program that actually uses that resource.  When you’re finished
     with it, restore the effective user ID back to the actual user’s
     user ID. *Note Enable/Disable Setuid::.

   • If the ‘setuid’ part of your program needs to access other files
     besides the controlled resource, it should verify that the real
     user would ordinarily have permission to access those files.  You
     can use the ‘access’ function (*note Access Permission::) to check
     this; it uses the real user and group IDs, rather than the
     effective IDs.


File: libc.info,  Node: Who Logged In,  Next: User Accounting Database,  Prev: Tips for Setuid,  Up: Users and Groups

30.11 Identifying Who Logged In
===============================

You can use the functions listed in this section to determine the login
name of the user who is running a process, and the name of the user who
logged in the current session.  See also the function ‘getuid’ and
friends (*note Reading Persona::).  How this information is collected by
the system and how to control/add/remove information from the background
storage is described in *note User Accounting Database::.

   The ‘getlogin’ function is declared in ‘unistd.h’, while ‘cuserid’
and ‘L_cuserid’ are declared in ‘stdio.h’.

 -- Function: char * getlogin (void)
     Preliminary: | MT-Unsafe race:getlogin race:utent sig:ALRM timer
     locale | AS-Unsafe dlopen plugin heap lock | AC-Unsafe corrupt lock
     fd mem | *Note POSIX Safety Concepts::.

     The ‘getlogin’ function returns a pointer to a string containing
     the name of the user logged in on the controlling terminal of the
     process, or a null pointer if this information cannot be
     determined.  The string is statically allocated and might be
     overwritten on subsequent calls to this function or to ‘cuserid’.

 -- Function: char * cuserid (char *STRING)
     Preliminary: | MT-Unsafe race:cuserid/!string locale | AS-Unsafe
     dlopen plugin heap lock | AC-Unsafe corrupt lock fd mem | *Note
     POSIX Safety Concepts::.

     The ‘cuserid’ function returns a pointer to a string containing a
     user name associated with the effective ID of the process.  If
     STRING is not a null pointer, it should be an array that can hold
     at least ‘L_cuserid’ characters; the string is returned in this
     array.  Otherwise, a pointer to a string in a static area is
     returned.  This string is statically allocated and might be
     overwritten on subsequent calls to this function or to ‘getlogin’.

     The use of this function is deprecated since it is marked to be
     withdrawn in XPG4.2 and has already been removed from newer
     revisions of POSIX.1.

 -- Macro: int L_cuserid
     An integer constant that indicates how long an array you might need
     to store a user name.

   These functions let your program identify positively the user who is
running or the user who logged in this session.  (These can differ when
setuid programs are involved; see *note Process Persona::.)  The user
cannot do anything to fool these functions.

   For most purposes, it is more useful to use the environment variable
‘LOGNAME’ to find out who the user is.  This is more flexible precisely
because the user can set ‘LOGNAME’ arbitrarily.  *Note Standard
Environment::.


File: libc.info,  Node: User Accounting Database,  Next: User Database,  Prev: Who Logged In,  Up: Users and Groups

30.12 The User Accounting Database
==================================

Most Unix-like operating systems keep track of logged in users by
maintaining a user accounting database.  This user accounting database
stores for each terminal, who has logged on, at what time, the process
ID of the user’s login shell, etc., etc., but also stores information
about the run level of the system, the time of the last system reboot,
and possibly more.

   The user accounting database typically lives in ‘/etc/utmp’,
‘/var/adm/utmp’ or ‘/var/run/utmp’.  However, these files should *never*
be accessed directly.  For reading information from and writing
information to the user accounting database, the functions described in
this section should be used.

* Menu:

* Manipulating the Database::   Scanning and modifying the user
                                 accounting database.
* XPG Functions::               A standardized way for doing the same thing.
* Logging In and Out::          Functions from BSD that modify the user
                                 accounting database.


File: libc.info,  Node: Manipulating the Database,  Next: XPG Functions,  Up: User Accounting Database

30.12.1 Manipulating the User Accounting Database
-------------------------------------------------

These functions and the corresponding data structures are declared in
the header file ‘utmp.h’.

 -- Data Type: struct exit_status
     The ‘exit_status’ data structure is used to hold information about
     the exit status of processes marked as ‘DEAD_PROCESS’ in the user
     accounting database.

     ‘short int e_termination’
          The exit status of the process.

     ‘short int e_exit’
          The exit status of the process.

 -- Data Type: struct utmp
     The ‘utmp’ data structure is used to hold information about entries
     in the user accounting database.  On GNU systems it has the
     following members:

     ‘short int ut_type’
          Specifies the type of login; one of ‘EMPTY’, ‘RUN_LVL’,
          ‘BOOT_TIME’, ‘OLD_TIME’, ‘NEW_TIME’, ‘INIT_PROCESS’,
          ‘LOGIN_PROCESS’, ‘USER_PROCESS’, ‘DEAD_PROCESS’ or
          ‘ACCOUNTING’.

     ‘pid_t ut_pid’
          The process ID number of the login process.

     ‘char ut_line[]’
          The device name of the tty (without ‘/dev/’).

     ‘char ut_id[]’
          The inittab ID of the process.

     ‘char ut_user[]’
          The user’s login name.

     ‘char ut_host[]’
          The name of the host from which the user logged in.

     ‘struct exit_status ut_exit’
          The exit status of a process marked as ‘DEAD_PROCESS’.

     ‘long ut_session’
          The Session ID, used for windowing.

     ‘struct timeval ut_tv’
          Time the entry was made.  For entries of type ‘OLD_TIME’ this
          is the time when the system clock changed, and for entries of
          type ‘NEW_TIME’ this is the time the system clock was set to.

     ‘int32_t ut_addr_v6[4]’
          The Internet address of a remote host.

   The ‘ut_type’, ‘ut_pid’, ‘ut_id’, ‘ut_tv’, and ‘ut_host’ fields are
not available on all systems.  Portable applications therefore should be
prepared for these situations.  To help doing this the ‘utmp.h’ header
provides macros ‘_HAVE_UT_TYPE’, ‘_HAVE_UT_PID’, ‘_HAVE_UT_ID’,
‘_HAVE_UT_TV’, and ‘_HAVE_UT_HOST’ if the respective field is available.
The programmer can handle the situations by using ‘#ifdef’ in the
program code.

   The following macros are defined for use as values for the ‘ut_type’
member of the ‘utmp’ structure.  The values are integer constants.

‘EMPTY’
     This macro is used to indicate that the entry contains no valid
     user accounting information.

‘RUN_LVL’
     This macro is used to identify the systems runlevel.

‘BOOT_TIME’
     This macro is used to identify the time of system boot.

‘OLD_TIME’
     This macro is used to identify the time when the system clock
     changed.

‘NEW_TIME’
     This macro is used to identify the time after the system changed.

‘INIT_PROCESS’
     This macro is used to identify a process spawned by the init
     process.

‘LOGIN_PROCESS’
     This macro is used to identify the session leader of a logged in
     user.

‘USER_PROCESS’
     This macro is used to identify a user process.

‘DEAD_PROCESS’
     This macro is used to identify a terminated process.

‘ACCOUNTING’
     ???

   The size of the ‘ut_line’, ‘ut_id’, ‘ut_user’ and ‘ut_host’ arrays
can be found using the ‘sizeof’ operator.

   Many older systems have, instead of an ‘ut_tv’ member, an ‘ut_time’
member, usually of type ‘time_t’, for representing the time associated
with the entry.  Therefore, for backwards compatibility only, ‘utmp.h’
defines ‘ut_time’ as an alias for ‘ut_tv.tv_sec’.

 -- Function: void setutent (void)
     Preliminary: | MT-Unsafe race:utent | AS-Unsafe lock | AC-Unsafe
     lock fd | *Note POSIX Safety Concepts::.

     This function opens the user accounting database to begin scanning
     it.  You can then call ‘getutent’, ‘getutid’ or ‘getutline’ to read
     entries and ‘pututline’ to write entries.

     If the database is already open, it resets the input to the
     beginning of the database.

 -- Function: struct utmp * getutent (void)
     Preliminary: | MT-Unsafe init race:utent race:utentbuf sig:ALRM
     timer | AS-Unsafe heap lock | AC-Unsafe lock fd mem | *Note POSIX
     Safety Concepts::.

     The ‘getutent’ function reads the next entry from the user
     accounting database.  It returns a pointer to the entry, which is
     statically allocated and may be overwritten by subsequent calls to
     ‘getutent’.  You must copy the contents of the structure if you
     wish to save the information or you can use the ‘getutent_r’
     function which stores the data in a user-provided buffer.

     A null pointer is returned in case no further entry is available.

 -- Function: void endutent (void)
     Preliminary: | MT-Unsafe race:utent | AS-Unsafe lock | AC-Unsafe
     lock fd | *Note POSIX Safety Concepts::.

     This function closes the user accounting database.

 -- Function: struct utmp * getutid (const struct utmp *ID)
     Preliminary: | MT-Unsafe init race:utent sig:ALRM timer | AS-Unsafe
     lock heap | AC-Unsafe lock mem fd | *Note POSIX Safety Concepts::.

     This function searches forward from the current point in the
     database for an entry that matches ID.  If the ‘ut_type’ member of
     the ID structure is one of ‘RUN_LVL’, ‘BOOT_TIME’, ‘OLD_TIME’ or
     ‘NEW_TIME’ the entries match if the ‘ut_type’ members are
     identical.  If the ‘ut_type’ member of the ID structure is
     ‘INIT_PROCESS’, ‘LOGIN_PROCESS’, ‘USER_PROCESS’ or ‘DEAD_PROCESS’,
     the entries match if the ‘ut_type’ member of the entry read from
     the database is one of these four, and the ‘ut_id’ members match.
     However if the ‘ut_id’ member of either the ID structure or the
     entry read from the database is empty it checks if the ‘ut_line’
     members match instead.  If a matching entry is found, ‘getutid’
     returns a pointer to the entry, which is statically allocated, and
     may be overwritten by a subsequent call to ‘getutent’, ‘getutid’ or
     ‘getutline’.  You must copy the contents of the structure if you
     wish to save the information.

     A null pointer is returned in case the end of the database is
     reached without a match.

     The ‘getutid’ function may cache the last read entry.  Therefore,
     if you are using ‘getutid’ to search for multiple occurrences, it
     is necessary to zero out the static data after each call.
     Otherwise ‘getutid’ could just return a pointer to the same entry
     over and over again.

 -- Function: struct utmp * getutline (const struct utmp *LINE)
     Preliminary: | MT-Unsafe init race:utent sig:ALRM timer | AS-Unsafe
     heap lock | AC-Unsafe lock fd mem | *Note POSIX Safety Concepts::.

     This function searches forward from the current point in the
     database until it finds an entry whose ‘ut_type’ value is
     ‘LOGIN_PROCESS’ or ‘USER_PROCESS’, and whose ‘ut_line’ member
     matches the ‘ut_line’ member of the LINE structure.  If it finds
     such an entry, it returns a pointer to the entry which is
     statically allocated, and may be overwritten by a subsequent call
     to ‘getutent’, ‘getutid’ or ‘getutline’.  You must copy the
     contents of the structure if you wish to save the information.

     A null pointer is returned in case the end of the database is
     reached without a match.

     The ‘getutline’ function may cache the last read entry.  Therefore
     if you are using ‘getutline’ to search for multiple occurrences, it
     is necessary to zero out the static data after each call.
     Otherwise ‘getutline’ could just return a pointer to the same entry
     over and over again.

 -- Function: struct utmp * pututline (const struct utmp *UTMP)
     Preliminary: | MT-Unsafe race:utent sig:ALRM timer | AS-Unsafe lock
     | AC-Unsafe lock fd | *Note POSIX Safety Concepts::.

     The ‘pututline’ function inserts the entry ‘*UTMP’ at the
     appropriate place in the user accounting database.  If it finds
     that it is not already at the correct place in the database, it
     uses ‘getutid’ to search for the position to insert the entry,
     however this will not modify the static structure returned by
     ‘getutent’, ‘getutid’ and ‘getutline’.  If this search fails, the
     entry is appended to the database.

     The ‘pututline’ function returns a pointer to a copy of the entry
     inserted in the user accounting database, or a null pointer if the
     entry could not be added.  The following ‘errno’ error conditions
     are defined for this function:

     ‘EPERM’
          The process does not have the appropriate privileges; you
          cannot modify the user accounting database.

   All the ‘get*’ functions mentioned before store the information they
return in a static buffer.  This can be a problem in multi-threaded
programs since the data returned for the request is overwritten by the
return value data in another thread.  Therefore the GNU C Library
provides as extensions three more functions which return the data in a
user-provided buffer.

 -- Function: int getutent_r (struct utmp *BUFFER, struct utmp **RESULT)
     Preliminary: | MT-Unsafe race:utent sig:ALRM timer | AS-Unsafe lock
     | AC-Unsafe lock fd | *Note POSIX Safety Concepts::.

     The ‘getutent_r’ is equivalent to the ‘getutent’ function.  It
     returns the next entry from the database.  But instead of storing
     the information in a static buffer it stores it in the buffer
     pointed to by the parameter BUFFER.

     If the call was successful, the function returns ‘0’ and the
     pointer variable pointed to by the parameter RESULT contains a
     pointer to the buffer which contains the result (this is most
     probably the same value as BUFFER).  If something went wrong during
     the execution of ‘getutent_r’ the function returns ‘-1’.

     This function is a GNU extension.

 -- Function: int getutid_r (const struct utmp *ID, struct utmp *BUFFER,
          struct utmp **RESULT)
     Preliminary: | MT-Unsafe race:utent sig:ALRM timer | AS-Unsafe lock
     | AC-Unsafe lock fd | *Note POSIX Safety Concepts::.

     This function retrieves just like ‘getutid’ the next entry matching
     the information stored in ID.  But the result is stored in the
     buffer pointed to by the parameter BUFFER.

     If successful the function returns ‘0’ and the pointer variable
     pointed to by the parameter RESULT contains a pointer to the buffer
     with the result (probably the same as RESULT.  If not successful
     the function return ‘-1’.

     This function is a GNU extension.

 -- Function: int getutline_r (const struct utmp *LINE, struct utmp
          *BUFFER, struct utmp **RESULT)
     Preliminary: | MT-Unsafe race:utent sig:ALRM timer | AS-Unsafe lock
     | AC-Unsafe lock fd | *Note POSIX Safety Concepts::.

     This function retrieves just like ‘getutline’ the next entry
     matching the information stored in LINE.  But the result is stored
     in the buffer pointed to by the parameter BUFFER.

     If successful the function returns ‘0’ and the pointer variable
     pointed to by the parameter RESULT contains a pointer to the buffer
     with the result (probably the same as RESULT.  If not successful
     the function return ‘-1’.

     This function is a GNU extension.

   In addition to the user accounting database, most systems keep a
number of similar databases.  For example most systems keep a log file
with all previous logins (usually in ‘/etc/wtmp’ or ‘/var/log/wtmp’).

   For specifying which database to examine, the following function
should be used.

 -- Function: int utmpname (const char *FILE)
     Preliminary: | MT-Unsafe race:utent | AS-Unsafe lock heap |
     AC-Unsafe lock mem | *Note POSIX Safety Concepts::.

     The ‘utmpname’ function changes the name of the database to be
     examined to FILE, and closes any previously opened database.  By
     default ‘getutent’, ‘getutid’, ‘getutline’ and ‘pututline’ read
     from and write to the user accounting database.

     The following macros are defined for use as the FILE argument:

      -- Macro: char * _PATH_UTMP
          This macro is used to specify the user accounting database.

      -- Macro: char * _PATH_WTMP
          This macro is used to specify the user accounting log file.

     The ‘utmpname’ function returns a value of ‘0’ if the new name was
     successfully stored, and a value of ‘-1’ to indicate an error.
     Note that ‘utmpname’ does not try to open the database, and that
     therefore the return value does not say anything about whether the
     database can be successfully opened.

   Specially for maintaining log-like databases the GNU C Library
provides the following function:

 -- Function: void updwtmp (const char *WTMP_FILE, const struct utmp
          *UTMP)
     Preliminary: | MT-Unsafe sig:ALRM timer | AS-Unsafe | AC-Unsafe fd
     | *Note POSIX Safety Concepts::.

     The ‘updwtmp’ function appends the entry *UTMP to the database
     specified by WTMP_FILE.  For possible values for the WTMP_FILE
     argument see the ‘utmpname’ function.

   *Portability Note:* Although many operating systems provide a subset
of these functions, they are not standardized.  There are often subtle
differences in the return types, and there are considerable differences
between the various definitions of ‘struct utmp’.  When programming for
the GNU C Library, it is probably best to stick with the functions
described in this section.  If however, you want your program to be
portable, consider using the XPG functions described in *note XPG
Functions::, or take a look at the BSD compatible functions in *note
Logging In and Out::.


File: libc.info,  Node: XPG Functions,  Next: Logging In and Out,  Prev: Manipulating the Database,  Up: User Accounting Database

30.12.2 XPG User Accounting Database Functions
----------------------------------------------

These functions, described in the X/Open Portability Guide, are declared
in the header file ‘utmpx.h’.

 -- Data Type: struct utmpx
     The ‘utmpx’ data structure contains at least the following members:

     ‘short int ut_type’
          Specifies the type of login; one of ‘EMPTY’, ‘RUN_LVL’,
          ‘BOOT_TIME’, ‘OLD_TIME’, ‘NEW_TIME’, ‘INIT_PROCESS’,
          ‘LOGIN_PROCESS’, ‘USER_PROCESS’ or ‘DEAD_PROCESS’.

     ‘pid_t ut_pid’
          The process ID number of the login process.

     ‘char ut_line[]’
          The device name of the tty (without ‘/dev/’).

     ‘char ut_id[]’
          The inittab ID of the process.

     ‘char ut_user[]’
          The user’s login name.

     ‘struct timeval ut_tv’
          Time the entry was made.  For entries of type ‘OLD_TIME’ this
          is the time when the system clock changed, and for entries of
          type ‘NEW_TIME’ this is the time the system clock was set to.
     In the GNU C Library, ‘struct utmpx’ is identical to ‘struct utmp’
     except for the fact that including ‘utmpx.h’ does not make visible
     the declaration of ‘struct exit_status’.

   The following macros are defined for use as values for the ‘ut_type’
member of the ‘utmpx’ structure.  The values are integer constants and
are, in the GNU C Library, identical to the definitions in ‘utmp.h’.

‘EMPTY’
     This macro is used to indicate that the entry contains no valid
     user accounting information.

‘RUN_LVL’
     This macro is used to identify the systems runlevel.

‘BOOT_TIME’
     This macro is used to identify the time of system boot.

‘OLD_TIME’
     This macro is used to identify the time when the system clock
     changed.

‘NEW_TIME’
     This macro is used to identify the time after the system changed.

‘INIT_PROCESS’
     This macro is used to identify a process spawned by the init
     process.

‘LOGIN_PROCESS’
     This macro is used to identify the session leader of a logged in
     user.

‘USER_PROCESS’
     This macro is used to identify a user process.

‘DEAD_PROCESS’
     This macro is used to identify a terminated process.

   The size of the ‘ut_line’, ‘ut_id’ and ‘ut_user’ arrays can be found
using the ‘sizeof’ operator.

 -- Function: void setutxent (void)
     Preliminary: | MT-Unsafe race:utent | AS-Unsafe lock | AC-Unsafe
     lock fd | *Note POSIX Safety Concepts::.

     This function is similar to ‘setutent’.  In the GNU C Library it is
     simply an alias for ‘setutent’.

 -- Function: struct utmpx * getutxent (void)
     Preliminary: | MT-Unsafe init race:utent sig:ALRM timer | AS-Unsafe
     heap lock | AC-Unsafe lock fd mem | *Note POSIX Safety Concepts::.

     The ‘getutxent’ function is similar to ‘getutent’, but returns a
     pointer to a ‘struct utmpx’ instead of ‘struct utmp’.  In the GNU C
     Library it simply is an alias for ‘getutent’.

 -- Function: void endutxent (void)
     Preliminary: | MT-Unsafe race:utent | AS-Unsafe lock | AC-Unsafe
     lock | *Note POSIX Safety Concepts::.

     This function is similar to ‘endutent’.  In the GNU C Library it is
     simply an alias for ‘endutent’.

 -- Function: struct utmpx * getutxid (const struct utmpx *ID)
     Preliminary: | MT-Unsafe init race:utent sig:ALRM timer | AS-Unsafe
     lock heap | AC-Unsafe lock mem fd | *Note POSIX Safety Concepts::.

     This function is similar to ‘getutid’, but uses ‘struct utmpx’
     instead of ‘struct utmp’.  In the GNU C Library it is simply an
     alias for ‘getutid’.

 -- Function: struct utmpx * getutxline (const struct utmpx *LINE)
     Preliminary: | MT-Unsafe init race:utent sig:ALRM timer | AS-Unsafe
     heap lock | AC-Unsafe lock fd mem | *Note POSIX Safety Concepts::.

     This function is similar to ‘getutid’, but uses ‘struct utmpx’
     instead of ‘struct utmp’.  In the GNU C Library it is simply an
     alias for ‘getutline’.

 -- Function: struct utmpx * pututxline (const struct utmpx *UTMP)
     Preliminary: | MT-Unsafe race:utent sig:ALRM timer | AS-Unsafe lock
     | AC-Unsafe lock fd | *Note POSIX Safety Concepts::.

     The ‘pututxline’ function is functionally identical to ‘pututline’,
     but uses ‘struct utmpx’ instead of ‘struct utmp’.  In the GNU C
     Library, ‘pututxline’ is simply an alias for ‘pututline’.

 -- Function: int utmpxname (const char *FILE)
     Preliminary: | MT-Unsafe race:utent | AS-Unsafe lock heap |
     AC-Unsafe lock mem | *Note POSIX Safety Concepts::.

     The ‘utmpxname’ function is functionally identical to ‘utmpname’.
     In the GNU C Library, ‘utmpxname’ is simply an alias for
     ‘utmpname’.

   You can translate between a traditional ‘struct utmp’ and an XPG
‘struct utmpx’ with the following functions.  In the GNU C Library,
these functions are merely copies, since the two structures are
identical.

 -- Function: int getutmp (const struct utmpx *UTMPX, struct utmp *UTMP)
     Preliminary: | MT-Safe | AS-Safe | AC-Safe | *Note POSIX Safety
     Concepts::.

     ‘getutmp’ copies the information, insofar as the structures are
     compatible, from UTMPX to UTMP.

 -- Function: int getutmpx (const struct utmp *UTMP, struct utmpx
          *UTMPX)
     Preliminary: | MT-Safe | AS-Safe | AC-Safe | *Note POSIX Safety
     Concepts::.

     ‘getutmpx’ copies the information, insofar as the structures are
     compatible, from UTMP to UTMPX.


File: libc.info,  Node: Logging In and Out,  Prev: XPG Functions,  Up: User Accounting Database

30.12.3 Logging In and Out
--------------------------

These functions, derived from BSD, are available in the separate
‘libutil’ library, and declared in ‘utmp.h’.

   Note that the ‘ut_user’ member of ‘struct utmp’ is called ‘ut_name’
in BSD. Therefore, ‘ut_name’ is defined as an alias for ‘ut_user’ in
‘utmp.h’.

 -- Function: int login_tty (int FILEDES)
     Preliminary: | MT-Unsafe race:ttyname | AS-Unsafe heap lock |
     AC-Unsafe lock fd mem | *Note POSIX Safety Concepts::.

     This function makes FILEDES the controlling terminal of the current
     process, redirects standard input, standard output and standard
     error output to this terminal, and closes FILEDES.

     This function returns ‘0’ on successful completion, and ‘-1’ on
     error.

 -- Function: void login (const struct utmp *ENTRY)
     Preliminary: | MT-Unsafe race:utent sig:ALRM timer | AS-Unsafe lock
     heap | AC-Unsafe lock corrupt fd mem | *Note POSIX Safety
     Concepts::.

     The ‘login’ functions inserts an entry into the user accounting
     database.  The ‘ut_line’ member is set to the name of the terminal
     on standard input.  If standard input is not a terminal ‘login’
     uses standard output or standard error output to determine the name
     of the terminal.  If ‘struct utmp’ has a ‘ut_type’ member, ‘login’
     sets it to ‘USER_PROCESS’, and if there is an ‘ut_pid’ member, it
     will be set to the process ID of the current process.  The
     remaining entries are copied from ENTRY.

     A copy of the entry is written to the user accounting log file.

 -- Function: int logout (const char *UT_LINE)
     Preliminary: | MT-Unsafe race:utent sig:ALRM timer | AS-Unsafe lock
     heap | AC-Unsafe lock fd mem | *Note POSIX Safety Concepts::.

     This function modifies the user accounting database to indicate
     that the user on UT_LINE has logged out.

     The ‘logout’ function returns ‘1’ if the entry was successfully
     written to the database, or ‘0’ on error.

 -- Function: void logwtmp (const char *UT_LINE, const char *UT_NAME,
          const char *UT_HOST)
     Preliminary: | MT-Unsafe sig:ALRM timer | AS-Unsafe | AC-Unsafe fd
     | *Note POSIX Safety Concepts::.

     The ‘logwtmp’ function appends an entry to the user accounting log
     file, for the current time and the information provided in the
     UT_LINE, UT_NAME and UT_HOST arguments.

   *Portability Note:* The BSD ‘struct utmp’ only has the ‘ut_line’,
‘ut_name’, ‘ut_host’ and ‘ut_time’ members.  Older systems do not even
have the ‘ut_host’ member.


File: libc.info,  Node: User Database,  Next: Group Database,  Prev: User Accounting Database,  Up: Users and Groups

30.13 User Database
===================

This section describes how to search and scan the database of registered
users.  The database itself is kept in the file ‘/etc/passwd’ on most
systems, but on some systems a special network server gives access to
it.

* Menu:

* User Data Structure::         What each user record contains.
* Lookup User::                 How to look for a particular user.
* Scanning All Users::          Scanning the list of all users, one by one.
* Writing a User Entry::        How a program can rewrite a user’s record.


File: libc.info,  Node: User Data Structure,  Next: Lookup User,  Up: User Database

30.13.1 The Data Structure that Describes a User
------------------------------------------------

The functions and data structures for accessing the system user database
are declared in the header file ‘pwd.h’.

 -- Data Type: struct passwd
     The ‘passwd’ data structure is used to hold information about
     entries in the system user data base.  It has at least the
     following members:

     ‘char *pw_name’
          The user’s login name.

     ‘char *pw_passwd.’
          The encrypted password string.

     ‘uid_t pw_uid’
          The user ID number.

     ‘gid_t pw_gid’
          The user’s default group ID number.

     ‘char *pw_gecos’
          A string typically containing the user’s real name, and
          possibly other information such as a phone number.

     ‘char *pw_dir’
          The user’s home directory, or initial working directory.  This
          might be a null pointer, in which case the interpretation is
          system-dependent.

     ‘char *pw_shell’
          The user’s default shell, or the initial program run when the
          user logs in.  This might be a null pointer, indicating that
          the system default should be used.


File: libc.info,  Node: Lookup User,  Next: Scanning All Users,  Prev: User Data Structure,  Up: User Database

30.13.2 Looking Up One User
---------------------------

You can search the system user database for information about a specific
user using ‘getpwuid’ or ‘getpwnam’.  These functions are declared in
‘pwd.h’.

 -- Function: struct passwd * getpwuid (uid_t UID)
     Preliminary: | MT-Unsafe race:pwuid locale | AS-Unsafe dlopen
     plugin heap lock | AC-Unsafe corrupt lock fd mem | *Note POSIX
     Safety Concepts::.

     This function returns a pointer to a statically-allocated structure
     containing information about the user whose user ID is UID.  This
     structure may be overwritten on subsequent calls to ‘getpwuid’.

     A null pointer value indicates there is no user in the data base
     with user ID UID.

 -- Function: int getpwuid_r (uid_t UID, struct passwd *RESULT_BUF, char
          *BUFFER, size_t BUFLEN, struct passwd **RESULT)
     Preliminary: | MT-Safe locale | AS-Unsafe dlopen plugin heap lock |
     AC-Unsafe corrupt lock fd mem | *Note POSIX Safety Concepts::.

     This function is similar to ‘getpwuid’ in that it returns
     information about the user whose user ID is UID.  However, it fills
     the user supplied structure pointed to by RESULT_BUF with the
     information instead of using a static buffer.  The first BUFLEN
     bytes of the additional buffer pointed to by BUFFER are used to
     contain additional information, normally strings which are pointed
     to by the elements of the result structure.

     If a user with ID UID is found, the pointer returned in RESULT
     points to the record which contains the wanted data (i.e., RESULT
     contains the value RESULT_BUF).  If no user is found or if an error
     occurred, the pointer returned in RESULT is a null pointer.  The
     function returns zero or an error code.  If the buffer BUFFER is
     too small to contain all the needed information, the error code
     ‘ERANGE’ is returned and ERRNO is set to ‘ERANGE’.

 -- Function: struct passwd * getpwnam (const char *NAME)
     Preliminary: | MT-Unsafe race:pwnam locale | AS-Unsafe dlopen
     plugin heap lock | AC-Unsafe corrupt lock fd mem | *Note POSIX
     Safety Concepts::.

     This function returns a pointer to a statically-allocated structure
     containing information about the user whose user name is NAME.
     This structure may be overwritten on subsequent calls to
     ‘getpwnam’.

     A null pointer return indicates there is no user named NAME.

 -- Function: int getpwnam_r (const char *NAME, struct passwd
          *RESULT_BUF, char *BUFFER, size_t BUFLEN, struct passwd
          **RESULT)
     Preliminary: | MT-Safe locale | AS-Unsafe dlopen plugin heap lock |
     AC-Unsafe corrupt lock fd mem | *Note POSIX Safety Concepts::.

     This function is similar to ‘getpwnam’ in that is returns
     information about the user whose user name is NAME.  However, like
     ‘getpwuid_r’, it fills the user supplied buffers in RESULT_BUF and
     BUFFER with the information instead of using a static buffer.

     The return values are the same as for ‘getpwuid_r’.


File: libc.info,  Node: Scanning All Users,  Next: Writing a User Entry,  Prev: Lookup User,  Up: User Database

30.13.3 Scanning the List of All Users
--------------------------------------

This section explains how a program can read the list of all users in
the system, one user at a time.  The functions described here are
declared in ‘pwd.h’.

   You can use the ‘fgetpwent’ function to read user entries from a
particular file.

 -- Function: struct passwd * fgetpwent (FILE *STREAM)
     Preliminary: | MT-Unsafe race:fpwent | AS-Unsafe corrupt lock |
     AC-Unsafe corrupt lock | *Note POSIX Safety Concepts::.

     This function reads the next user entry from STREAM and returns a
     pointer to the entry.  The structure is statically allocated and is
     rewritten on subsequent calls to ‘fgetpwent’.  You must copy the
     contents of the structure if you wish to save the information.

     The stream must correspond to a file in the same format as the
     standard password database file.

 -- Function: int fgetpwent_r (FILE *STREAM, struct passwd *RESULT_BUF,
          char *BUFFER, size_t BUFLEN, struct passwd **RESULT)
     Preliminary: | MT-Safe | AS-Unsafe corrupt | AC-Unsafe corrupt lock
     | *Note POSIX Safety Concepts::.

     This function is similar to ‘fgetpwent’ in that it reads the next
     user entry from STREAM.  But the result is returned in the
     structure pointed to by RESULT_BUF.  The first BUFLEN bytes of the
     additional buffer pointed to by BUFFER are used to contain
     additional information, normally strings which are pointed to by
     the elements of the result structure.

     The stream must correspond to a file in the same format as the
     standard password database file.

     If the function returns zero RESULT points to the structure with
     the wanted data (normally this is in RESULT_BUF).  If errors
     occurred the return value is nonzero and RESULT contains a null
     pointer.

   The way to scan all the entries in the user database is with
‘setpwent’, ‘getpwent’, and ‘endpwent’.

 -- Function: void setpwent (void)
     Preliminary: | MT-Unsafe race:pwent locale | AS-Unsafe dlopen
     plugin heap lock | AC-Unsafe corrupt lock fd mem | *Note POSIX
     Safety Concepts::.

     This function initializes a stream which ‘getpwent’ and
     ‘getpwent_r’ use to read the user database.

 -- Function: struct passwd * getpwent (void)
     Preliminary: | MT-Unsafe race:pwent race:pwentbuf locale |
     AS-Unsafe dlopen plugin heap lock | AC-Unsafe corrupt lock fd mem |
     *Note POSIX Safety Concepts::.

     The ‘getpwent’ function reads the next entry from the stream
     initialized by ‘setpwent’.  It returns a pointer to the entry.  The
     structure is statically allocated and is rewritten on subsequent
     calls to ‘getpwent’.  You must copy the contents of the structure
     if you wish to save the information.

     A null pointer is returned when no more entries are available.

 -- Function: int getpwent_r (struct passwd *RESULT_BUF, char *BUFFER,
          size_t BUFLEN, struct passwd **RESULT)
     Preliminary: | MT-Unsafe race:pwent locale | AS-Unsafe dlopen
     plugin heap lock | AC-Unsafe corrupt lock fd mem | *Note POSIX
     Safety Concepts::.

     This function is similar to ‘getpwent’ in that it returns the next
     entry from the stream initialized by ‘setpwent’.  Like
     ‘fgetpwent_r’, it uses the user-supplied buffers in RESULT_BUF and
     BUFFER to return the information requested.

     The return values are the same as for ‘fgetpwent_r’.

 -- Function: void endpwent (void)
     Preliminary: | MT-Unsafe race:pwent locale | AS-Unsafe dlopen
     plugin heap lock | AC-Unsafe corrupt lock fd mem | *Note POSIX
     Safety Concepts::.

     This function closes the internal stream used by ‘getpwent’ or
     ‘getpwent_r’.


File: libc.info,  Node: Writing a User Entry,  Prev: Scanning All Users,  Up: User Database

30.13.4 Writing a User Entry
----------------------------

 -- Function: int putpwent (const struct passwd *P, FILE *STREAM)
     Preliminary: | MT-Safe locale | AS-Unsafe corrupt | AC-Unsafe lock
     corrupt | *Note POSIX Safety Concepts::.

     This function writes the user entry ‘*P’ to the stream STREAM, in
     the format used for the standard user database file.  The return
     value is zero on success and nonzero on failure.

     This function exists for compatibility with SVID. We recommend that
     you avoid using it, because it makes sense only on the assumption
     that the ‘struct passwd’ structure has no members except the
     standard ones; on a system which merges the traditional Unix data
     base with other extended information about users, adding an entry
     using this function would inevitably leave out much of the
     important information.

     The group and user ID fields are left empty if the group or user
     name starts with a - or +.

     The function ‘putpwent’ is declared in ‘pwd.h’.


File: libc.info,  Node: Group Database,  Next: Database Example,  Prev: User Database,  Up: Users and Groups

30.14 Group Database
====================

This section describes how to search and scan the database of registered
groups.  The database itself is kept in the file ‘/etc/group’ on most
systems, but on some systems a special network service provides access
to it.

* Menu:

* Group Data Structure::        What each group record contains.
* Lookup Group::                How to look for a particular group.
* Scanning All Groups::         Scanning the list of all groups.


File: libc.info,  Node: Group Data Structure,  Next: Lookup Group,  Up: Group Database

30.14.1 The Data Structure for a Group
--------------------------------------

The functions and data structures for accessing the system group
database are declared in the header file ‘grp.h’.

 -- Data Type: struct group
     The ‘group’ structure is used to hold information about an entry in
     the system group database.  It has at least the following members:

     ‘char *gr_name’
          The name of the group.

     ‘gid_t gr_gid’
          The group ID of the group.

     ‘char **gr_mem’
          A vector of pointers to the names of users in the group.  Each
          user name is a null-terminated string, and the vector itself
          is terminated by a null pointer.


File: libc.info,  Node: Lookup Group,  Next: Scanning All Groups,  Prev: Group Data Structure,  Up: Group Database

30.14.2 Looking Up One Group
----------------------------

You can search the group database for information about a specific group
using ‘getgrgid’ or ‘getgrnam’.  These functions are declared in
‘grp.h’.

 -- Function: struct group * getgrgid (gid_t GID)
     Preliminary: | MT-Unsafe race:grgid locale | AS-Unsafe dlopen
     plugin heap lock | AC-Unsafe corrupt lock fd mem | *Note POSIX
     Safety Concepts::.

     This function returns a pointer to a statically-allocated structure
     containing information about the group whose group ID is GID.  This
     structure may be overwritten by subsequent calls to ‘getgrgid’.

     A null pointer indicates there is no group with ID GID.

 -- Function: int getgrgid_r (gid_t GID, struct group *RESULT_BUF, char
          *BUFFER, size_t BUFLEN, struct group **RESULT)
     Preliminary: | MT-Safe locale | AS-Unsafe dlopen plugin heap lock |
     AC-Unsafe corrupt lock fd mem | *Note POSIX Safety Concepts::.

     This function is similar to ‘getgrgid’ in that it returns
     information about the group whose group ID is GID.  However, it
     fills the user supplied structure pointed to by RESULT_BUF with the
     information instead of using a static buffer.  The first BUFLEN
     bytes of the additional buffer pointed to by BUFFER are used to
     contain additional information, normally strings which are pointed
     to by the elements of the result structure.

     If a group with ID GID is found, the pointer returned in RESULT
     points to the record which contains the wanted data (i.e., RESULT
     contains the value RESULT_BUF).  If no group is found or if an
     error occurred, the pointer returned in RESULT is a null pointer.
     The function returns zero or an error code.  If the buffer BUFFER
     is too small to contain all the needed information, the error code
     ‘ERANGE’ is returned and ERRNO is set to ‘ERANGE’.

 -- Function: struct group * getgrnam (const char *NAME)
     Preliminary: | MT-Unsafe race:grnam locale | AS-Unsafe dlopen
     plugin heap lock | AC-Unsafe corrupt lock fd mem | *Note POSIX
     Safety Concepts::.

     This function returns a pointer to a statically-allocated structure
     containing information about the group whose group name is NAME.
     This structure may be overwritten by subsequent calls to
     ‘getgrnam’.

     A null pointer indicates there is no group named NAME.

 -- Function: int getgrnam_r (const char *NAME, struct group
          *RESULT_BUF, char *BUFFER, size_t BUFLEN, struct group
          **RESULT)
     Preliminary: | MT-Safe locale | AS-Unsafe dlopen plugin heap lock |
     AC-Unsafe corrupt lock fd mem | *Note POSIX Safety Concepts::.

     This function is similar to ‘getgrnam’ in that is returns
     information about the group whose group name is NAME.  Like
     ‘getgrgid_r’, it uses the user supplied buffers in RESULT_BUF and
     BUFFER, not a static buffer.

     The return values are the same as for ‘getgrgid_r’ ‘ERANGE’.


File: libc.info,  Node: Scanning All Groups,  Prev: Lookup Group,  Up: Group Database

30.14.3 Scanning the List of All Groups
---------------------------------------

This section explains how a program can read the list of all groups in
the system, one group at a time.  The functions described here are
declared in ‘grp.h’.

   You can use the ‘fgetgrent’ function to read group entries from a
particular file.

 -- Function: struct group * fgetgrent (FILE *STREAM)
     Preliminary: | MT-Unsafe race:fgrent | AS-Unsafe corrupt lock |
     AC-Unsafe corrupt lock | *Note POSIX Safety Concepts::.

     The ‘fgetgrent’ function reads the next entry from STREAM.  It
     returns a pointer to the entry.  The structure is statically
     allocated and is overwritten on subsequent calls to ‘fgetgrent’.
     You must copy the contents of the structure if you wish to save the
     information.

     The stream must correspond to a file in the same format as the
     standard group database file.

 -- Function: int fgetgrent_r (FILE *STREAM, struct group *RESULT_BUF,
          char *BUFFER, size_t BUFLEN, struct group **RESULT)
     Preliminary: | MT-Safe | AS-Unsafe corrupt | AC-Unsafe corrupt lock
     | *Note POSIX Safety Concepts::.

     This function is similar to ‘fgetgrent’ in that it reads the next
     user entry from STREAM.  But the result is returned in the
     structure pointed to by RESULT_BUF.  The first BUFLEN bytes of the
     additional buffer pointed to by BUFFER are used to contain
     additional information, normally strings which are pointed to by
     the elements of the result structure.

     This stream must correspond to a file in the same format as the
     standard group database file.

     If the function returns zero RESULT points to the structure with
     the wanted data (normally this is in RESULT_BUF).  If errors
     occurred the return value is non-zero and RESULT contains a null
     pointer.

   The way to scan all the entries in the group database is with
‘setgrent’, ‘getgrent’, and ‘endgrent’.

 -- Function: void setgrent (void)
     Preliminary: | MT-Unsafe race:grent locale | AS-Unsafe dlopen
     plugin heap lock | AC-Unsafe corrupt lock fd mem | *Note POSIX
     Safety Concepts::.

     This function initializes a stream for reading from the group data
     base.  You use this stream by calling ‘getgrent’ or ‘getgrent_r’.

 -- Function: struct group * getgrent (void)
     Preliminary: | MT-Unsafe race:grent race:grentbuf locale |
     AS-Unsafe dlopen plugin heap lock | AC-Unsafe corrupt lock fd mem |
     *Note POSIX Safety Concepts::.

     The ‘getgrent’ function reads the next entry from the stream
     initialized by ‘setgrent’.  It returns a pointer to the entry.  The
     structure is statically allocated and is overwritten on subsequent
     calls to ‘getgrent’.  You must copy the contents of the structure
     if you wish to save the information.

 -- Function: int getgrent_r (struct group *RESULT_BUF, char *BUFFER,
          size_t BUFLEN, struct group **RESULT)
     Preliminary: | MT-Unsafe race:grent locale | AS-Unsafe dlopen
     plugin heap lock | AC-Unsafe corrupt lock fd mem | *Note POSIX
     Safety Concepts::.

     This function is similar to ‘getgrent’ in that it returns the next
     entry from the stream initialized by ‘setgrent’.  Like
     ‘fgetgrent_r’, it places the result in user-supplied buffers
     pointed to RESULT_BUF and BUFFER.

     If the function returns zero RESULT contains a pointer to the data
     (normally equal to RESULT_BUF).  If errors occurred the return
     value is non-zero and RESULT contains a null pointer.

 -- Function: void endgrent (void)
     Preliminary: | MT-Unsafe race:grent locale | AS-Unsafe dlopen
     plugin heap lock | AC-Unsafe corrupt lock fd mem | *Note POSIX
     Safety Concepts::.

     This function closes the internal stream used by ‘getgrent’ or
     ‘getgrent_r’.


File: libc.info,  Node: Database Example,  Next: Netgroup Database,  Prev: Group Database,  Up: Users and Groups

30.15 User and Group Database Example
=====================================

Here is an example program showing the use of the system database
inquiry functions.  The program prints some information about the user
running the program.


     #include <grp.h>
     #include <pwd.h>
     #include <sys/types.h>
     #include <unistd.h>
     #include <stdlib.h>

     int
     main (void)
     {
       uid_t me;
       struct passwd *my_passwd;
       struct group *my_group;
       char **members;

       /* Get information about the user ID. */
       me = getuid ();
       my_passwd = getpwuid (me);
       if (!my_passwd)
         {
           printf ("Couldn't find out about user %d.\n", (int) me);
           exit (EXIT_FAILURE);
         }

       /* Print the information. */
       printf ("I am %s.\n", my_passwd->pw_gecos);
       printf ("My login name is %s.\n", my_passwd->pw_name);
       printf ("My uid is %d.\n", (int) (my_passwd->pw_uid));
       printf ("My home directory is %s.\n", my_passwd->pw_dir);
       printf ("My default shell is %s.\n", my_passwd->pw_shell);

       /* Get information about the default group ID. */
       my_group = getgrgid (my_passwd->pw_gid);
       if (!my_group)
         {
           printf ("Couldn't find out about group %d.\n",
                   (int) my_passwd->pw_gid);
           exit (EXIT_FAILURE);
         }

       /* Print the information. */
       printf ("My default group is %s (%d).\n",
               my_group->gr_name, (int) (my_passwd->pw_gid));
       printf ("The members of this group are:\n");
       members = my_group->gr_mem;
       while (*members)
         {
           printf ("  %s\n", *(members));
           members++;
         }

       return EXIT_SUCCESS;
     }

   Here is some output from this program:

     I am Throckmorton Snurd.
     My login name is snurd.
     My uid is 31093.
     My home directory is /home/fsg/snurd.
     My default shell is /bin/sh.
     My default group is guest (12).
     The members of this group are:
       friedman
       tami


File: libc.info,  Node: Netgroup Database,  Prev: Database Example,  Up: Users and Groups

30.16 Netgroup Database
=======================

* Menu:

* Netgroup Data::                  Data in the Netgroup database and where
                                   it comes from.
* Lookup Netgroup::                How to look for a particular netgroup.
* Netgroup Membership::            How to test for netgroup membership.


File: libc.info,  Node: Netgroup Data,  Next: Lookup Netgroup,  Up: Netgroup Database

30.16.1 Netgroup Data
---------------------

Sometimes it is useful to group users according to other criteria (*note
Group Database::).  E.g., it is useful to associate a certain group of
users with a certain machine.  On the other hand grouping of host names
is not supported so far.

   In Sun Microsystems SunOS appeared a new kind of database, the
netgroup database.  It allows grouping hosts, users, and domains freely,
giving them individual names.  To be more concrete, a netgroup is a list
of triples consisting of a host name, a user name, and a domain name
where any of the entries can be a wildcard entry matching all inputs.  A
last possibility is that names of other netgroups can also be given in
the list specifying a netgroup.  So one can construct arbitrary
hierarchies without loops.

   Sun’s implementation allows netgroups only for the ‘nis’ or ‘nisplus’
service, *note Services in the NSS configuration::.  The implementation
in the GNU C Library has no such restriction.  An entry in either of the
input services must have the following form:

     GROUPNAME ( GROUPNAME | (HOSTNAME,USERNAME,domainname) )+

   Any of the fields in the triple can be empty which means anything
matches.  While describing the functions we will see that the opposite
case is useful as well.  I.e., there may be entries which will not match
any input.  For entries like this, a name consisting of the single
character ‘-’ shall be used.


File: libc.info,  Node: Lookup Netgroup,  Next: Netgroup Membership,  Prev: Netgroup Data,  Up: Netgroup Database

30.16.2 Looking up one Netgroup
-------------------------------

The lookup functions for netgroups are a bit different to all other
system database handling functions.  Since a single netgroup can contain
many entries a two-step process is needed.  First a single netgroup is
selected and then one can iterate over all entries in this netgroup.
These functions are declared in ‘netdb.h’.

 -- Function: int setnetgrent (const char *NETGROUP)
     Preliminary: | MT-Unsafe race:netgrent locale | AS-Unsafe dlopen
     plugin heap lock | AC-Unsafe corrupt lock fd mem | *Note POSIX
     Safety Concepts::.

     A call to this function initializes the internal state of the
     library to allow following calls of the ‘getnetgrent’ to iterate
     over all entries in the netgroup with name NETGROUP.

     When the call is successful (i.e., when a netgroup with this name
     exists) the return value is ‘1’.  When the return value is ‘0’ no
     netgroup of this name is known or some other error occurred.

   It is important to remember that there is only one single state for
iterating the netgroups.  Even if the programmer uses the
‘getnetgrent_r’ function the result is not really reentrant since always
only one single netgroup at a time can be processed.  If the program
needs to process more than one netgroup simultaneously she must protect
this by using external locking.  This problem was introduced in the
original netgroups implementation in SunOS and since we must stay
compatible it is not possible to change this.

   Some other functions also use the netgroups state.  Currently these
are the ‘innetgr’ function and parts of the implementation of the
‘compat’ service part of the NSS implementation.

 -- Function: int getnetgrent (char **HOSTP, char **USERP, char
          **DOMAINP)
     Preliminary: | MT-Unsafe race:netgrent race:netgrentbuf locale |
     AS-Unsafe dlopen plugin heap lock | AC-Unsafe corrupt lock fd mem |
     *Note POSIX Safety Concepts::.

     This function returns the next unprocessed entry of the currently
     selected netgroup.  The string pointers, in which addresses are
     passed in the arguments HOSTP, USERP, and DOMAINP, will contain
     after a successful call pointers to appropriate strings.  If the
     string in the next entry is empty the pointer has the value ‘NULL’.
     The returned string pointers are only valid if none of the netgroup
     related functions are called.

     The return value is ‘1’ if the next entry was successfully read.  A
     value of ‘0’ means no further entries exist or internal errors
     occurred.

 -- Function: int getnetgrent_r (char **HOSTP, char **USERP, char
          **DOMAINP, char *BUFFER, size_t BUFLEN)
     Preliminary: | MT-Unsafe race:netgrent locale | AS-Unsafe dlopen
     plugin heap lock | AC-Unsafe corrupt lock fd mem | *Note POSIX
     Safety Concepts::.

     This function is similar to ‘getnetgrent’ with only one exception:
     the strings the three string pointers HOSTP, USERP, and DOMAINP
     point to, are placed in the buffer of BUFLEN bytes starting at
     BUFFER.  This means the returned values are valid even after other
     netgroup related functions are called.

     The return value is ‘1’ if the next entry was successfully read and
     the buffer contains enough room to place the strings in it.  ‘0’ is
     returned in case no more entries are found, the buffer is too
     small, or internal errors occurred.

     This function is a GNU extension.  The original implementation in
     the SunOS libc does not provide this function.

 -- Function: void endnetgrent (void)
     Preliminary: | MT-Unsafe race:netgrent | AS-Unsafe dlopen plugin
     heap lock | AC-Unsafe corrupt lock fd mem | *Note POSIX Safety
     Concepts::.

     This function frees all buffers which were allocated to process the
     last selected netgroup.  As a result all string pointers returned
     by calls to ‘getnetgrent’ are invalid afterwards.


File: libc.info,  Node: Netgroup Membership,  Prev: Lookup Netgroup,  Up: Netgroup Database

30.16.3 Testing for Netgroup Membership
---------------------------------------

It is often not necessary to scan the whole netgroup since often the
only interesting question is whether a given entry is part of the
selected netgroup.

 -- Function: int innetgr (const char *NETGROUP, const char *HOST, const
          char *USER, const char *DOMAIN)
     Preliminary: | MT-Unsafe race:netgrent locale | AS-Unsafe dlopen
     plugin heap lock | AC-Unsafe corrupt lock fd mem | *Note POSIX
     Safety Concepts::.

     This function tests whether the triple specified by the parameters
     HOSTP, USERP, and DOMAINP is part of the netgroup NETGROUP.  Using
     this function has the advantage that

       1. no other netgroup function can use the global netgroup state
          since internal locking is used and
       2. the function is implemented more efficiently than successive
          calls to the other ‘set’/‘get’/‘endnetgrent’ functions.

     Any of the pointers HOSTP, USERP, and DOMAINP can be ‘NULL’ which
     means any value is accepted in this position.  This is also true
     for the name ‘-’ which should not match any other string otherwise.

     The return value is ‘1’ if an entry matching the given triple is
     found in the netgroup.  The return value is ‘0’ if the netgroup
     itself is not found, the netgroup does not contain the triple or
     internal errors occurred.


File: libc.info,  Node: System Management,  Next: System Configuration,  Prev: Users and Groups,  Up: Top

31 System Management
********************

This chapter describes facilities for controlling the system that
underlies a process (including the operating system and hardware) and
for getting information about it.  Anyone can generally use the
informational facilities, but usually only a properly privileged process
can make changes.

* Menu:

* Host Identification::         Determining the name of the machine.
* Platform Type::               Determining operating system and basic
                                  machine type
* Filesystem Handling::         Controlling/querying mounts
* System Parameters::           Getting and setting various system parameters

   To get information on parameters of the system that are built into
the system, such as the maximum length of a filename, *note System
Configuration::.


File: libc.info,  Node: Host Identification,  Next: Platform Type,  Up: System Management

31.1 Host Identification
========================

This section explains how to identify the particular system on which
your program is running.  First, let’s review the various ways computer
systems are named, which is a little complicated because of the history
of the development of the Internet.

   Every Unix system (also known as a host) has a host name, whether
it’s connected to a network or not.  In its simplest form, as used
before computer networks were an issue, it’s just a word like ‘chicken’.

   But any system attached to the Internet or any network like it
conforms to a more rigorous naming convention as part of the Domain Name
System (DNS). In DNS, every host name is composed of two parts:

  1. hostname
  2. domain name

   You will note that “hostname” looks a lot like “host name”, but is
not the same thing, and that people often incorrectly refer to entire
host names as “domain names.”

   In DNS, the full host name is properly called the FQDN (Fully
Qualified Domain Name) and consists of the hostname, then a period, then
the domain name.  The domain name itself usually has multiple components
separated by periods.  So for example, a system’s hostname may be
‘chicken’ and its domain name might be ‘ai.mit.edu’, so its FQDN (which
is its host name) is ‘chicken.ai.mit.edu’.

   Adding to the confusion, though, is that DNS is not the only name
space in which a computer needs to be known.  Another name space is the
NIS (aka YP) name space.  For NIS purposes, there is another domain
name, which is called the NIS domain name or the YP domain name.  It
need not have anything to do with the DNS domain name.

   Confusing things even more is the fact that in DNS, it is possible
for multiple FQDNs to refer to the same system.  However, there is
always exactly one of them that is the true host name, and it is called
the canonical FQDN.

   In some contexts, the host name is called a “node name.”

   For more information on DNS host naming, see *note Host Names::.

   Prototypes for these functions appear in ‘unistd.h’.

   The programs ‘hostname’, ‘hostid’, and ‘domainname’ work by calling
these functions.

 -- Function: int gethostname (char *NAME, size_t SIZE)
     Preliminary: | MT-Safe | AS-Safe | AC-Safe | *Note POSIX Safety
     Concepts::.

     This function returns the host name of the system on which it is
     called, in the array NAME.  The SIZE argument specifies the size of
     this array, in bytes.  Note that this is _not_ the DNS hostname.
     If the system participates in DNS, this is the FQDN (see above).

     The return value is ‘0’ on success and ‘-1’ on failure.  In the GNU
     C Library, ‘gethostname’ fails if SIZE is not large enough; then
     you can try again with a larger array.  The following ‘errno’ error
     condition is defined for this function:

     ‘ENAMETOOLONG’
          The SIZE argument is less than the size of the host name plus
          one.

     On some systems, there is a symbol for the maximum possible host
     name length: ‘MAXHOSTNAMELEN’.  It is defined in ‘sys/param.h’.
     But you can’t count on this to exist, so it is cleaner to handle
     failure and try again.

     ‘gethostname’ stores the beginning of the host name in NAME even if
     the host name won’t entirely fit.  For some purposes, a truncated
     host name is good enough.  If it is, you can ignore the error code.

 -- Function: int sethostname (const char *NAME, size_t LENGTH)
     Preliminary: | MT-Safe | AS-Safe | AC-Safe | *Note POSIX Safety
     Concepts::.

     The ‘sethostname’ function sets the host name of the system that
     calls it to NAME, a string with length LENGTH.  Only privileged
     processes are permitted to do this.

     Usually ‘sethostname’ gets called just once, at system boot time.
     Often, the program that calls it sets it to the value it finds in
     the file ‘/etc/hostname’.

     Be sure to set the host name to the full host name, not just the
     DNS hostname (see above).

     The return value is ‘0’ on success and ‘-1’ on failure.  The
     following ‘errno’ error condition is defined for this function:

     ‘EPERM’
          This process cannot set the host name because it is not
          privileged.

 -- Function: int getdomainnname (char *NAME, size_t LENGTH)
     Preliminary: | MT-Safe | AS-Safe | AC-Safe | *Note POSIX Safety
     Concepts::.

     ‘getdomainname’ returns the NIS (aka YP) domain name of the system
     on which it is called.  Note that this is not the more popular DNS
     domain name.  Get that with ‘gethostname’.

     The specifics of this function are analogous to ‘gethostname’,
     above.

 -- Function: int setdomainname (const char *NAME, size_t LENGTH)
     Preliminary: | MT-Safe | AS-Safe | AC-Safe | *Note POSIX Safety
     Concepts::.

     ‘getdomainname’ sets the NIS (aka YP) domain name of the system on
     which it is called.  Note that this is not the more popular DNS
     domain name.  Set that with ‘sethostname’.

     The specifics of this function are analogous to ‘sethostname’,
     above.

 -- Function: long int gethostid (void)
     Preliminary: | MT-Safe hostid env locale | AS-Unsafe dlopen plugin
     corrupt heap lock | AC-Unsafe lock corrupt mem fd | *Note POSIX
     Safety Concepts::.

     This function returns the “host ID” of the machine the program is
     running on.  By convention, this is usually the primary Internet IP
     address of that machine, converted to a ‘long int’.  However, on
     some systems it is a meaningless but unique number which is
     hard-coded for each machine.

     This is not widely used.  It arose in BSD 4.2, but was dropped in
     BSD 4.4.  It is not required by POSIX.

     The proper way to query the IP address is to use ‘gethostbyname’ on
     the results of ‘gethostname’.  For more information on IP
     addresses, *Note Host Addresses::.

 -- Function: int sethostid (long int ID)
     Preliminary: | MT-Unsafe const:hostid | AS-Unsafe | AC-Unsafe
     corrupt fd | *Note POSIX Safety Concepts::.

     The ‘sethostid’ function sets the “host ID” of the host machine to
     ID.  Only privileged processes are permitted to do this.  Usually
     it happens just once, at system boot time.

     The proper way to establish the primary IP address of a system is
     to configure the IP address resolver to associate that IP address
     with the system’s host name as returned by ‘gethostname’.  For
     example, put a record for the system in ‘/etc/hosts’.

     See ‘gethostid’ above for more information on host ids.

     The return value is ‘0’ on success and ‘-1’ on failure.  The
     following ‘errno’ error conditions are defined for this function:

     ‘EPERM’
          This process cannot set the host name because it is not
          privileged.

     ‘ENOSYS’
          The operating system does not support setting the host ID. On
          some systems, the host ID is a meaningless but unique number
          hard-coded for each machine.


File: libc.info,  Node: Platform Type,  Next: Filesystem Handling,  Prev: Host Identification,  Up: System Management

31.2 Platform Type Identification
=================================

You can use the ‘uname’ function to find out some information about the
type of computer your program is running on.  This function and the
associated data type are declared in the header file ‘sys/utsname.h’.

   As a bonus, ‘uname’ also gives some information identifying the
particular system your program is running on.  This is the same
information which you can get with functions targeted to this purpose
described in *note Host Identification::.

 -- Data Type: struct utsname
     The ‘utsname’ structure is used to hold information returned by the
     ‘uname’ function.  It has the following members:

     ‘char sysname[]’
          This is the name of the operating system in use.

     ‘char release[]’
          This is the current release level of the operating system
          implementation.

     ‘char version[]’
          This is the current version level within the release of the
          operating system.

     ‘char machine[]’
          This is a description of the type of hardware that is in use.

          Some systems provide a mechanism to interrogate the kernel
          directly for this information.  On systems without such a
          mechanism, the GNU C Library fills in this field based on the
          configuration name that was specified when building and
          installing the library.

          GNU uses a three-part name to describe a system configuration;
          the three parts are CPU, MANUFACTURER and SYSTEM-TYPE, and
          they are separated with dashes.  Any possible combination of
          three names is potentially meaningful, but most such
          combinations are meaningless in practice and even the
          meaningful ones are not necessarily supported by any
          particular GNU program.

          Since the value in ‘machine’ is supposed to describe just the
          hardware, it consists of the first two parts of the
          configuration name: ‘CPU-MANUFACTURER’.  For example, it might
          be one of these:

               ‘"sparc-sun"’, ‘"i386-ANYTHING"’, ‘"m68k-hp"’,
               ‘"m68k-sony"’, ‘"m68k-sun"’, ‘"mips-dec"’

     ‘char nodename[]’
          This is the host name of this particular computer.  In the GNU
          C Library, the value is the same as that returned by
          ‘gethostname’; see *note Host Identification::.

           gethostname() is implemented with a call to uname().

     ‘char domainname[]’
          This is the NIS or YP domain name.  It is the same value
          returned by ‘getdomainname’; see *note Host Identification::.
          This element is a relatively recent invention and use of it is
          not as portable as use of the rest of the structure.

 -- Function: int uname (struct utsname *INFO)
     Preliminary: | MT-Safe | AS-Safe | AC-Safe | *Note POSIX Safety
     Concepts::.

     The ‘uname’ function fills in the structure pointed to by INFO with
     information about the operating system and host machine.  A
     non-negative value indicates that the data was successfully stored.

     ‘-1’ as the value indicates an error.  The only error possible is
     ‘EFAULT’, which we normally don’t mention as it is always a
     possibility.


File: libc.info,  Node: Filesystem Handling,  Next: System Parameters,  Prev: Platform Type,  Up: System Management

31.3 Controlling and Querying Mounts
====================================

All files are in filesystems, and before you can access any file, its
filesystem must be mounted.  Because of Unix’s concept of _Everything is
a file_, mounting of filesystems is central to doing almost anything.
This section explains how to find out what filesystems are currently
mounted and what filesystems are available for mounting, and how to
change what is mounted.

   The classic filesystem is the contents of a disk drive.  The concept
is considerably more abstract, though, and lots of things other than
disk drives can be mounted.

   Some block devices don’t correspond to traditional devices like disk
drives.  For example, a loop device is a block device whose driver uses
a regular file in another filesystem as its medium.  So if that regular
file contains appropriate data for a filesystem, you can by mounting the
loop device essentially mount a regular file.

   Some filesystems aren’t based on a device of any kind.  The “proc”
filesystem, for example, contains files whose data is made up by the
filesystem driver on the fly whenever you ask for it.  And when you
write to it, the data you write causes changes in the system.  No data
gets stored.

* Menu:

* Mount Information::           What is or could be mounted?
* Mount-Unmount-Remount::       Controlling what is mounted and how


File: libc.info,  Node: Mount Information,  Next: Mount-Unmount-Remount,  Up: Filesystem Handling

31.3.1 Mount Information
------------------------

For some programs it is desirable and necessary to access information
about whether a certain filesystem is mounted and, if it is, where, or
simply to get lists of all the available filesystems.  The GNU C Library
provides some functions to retrieve this information portably.

   Traditionally Unix systems have a file named ‘/etc/fstab’ which
describes all possibly mounted filesystems.  The ‘mount’ program uses
this file to mount at startup time of the system all the necessary
filesystems.  The information about all the filesystems actually mounted
is normally kept in a file named either ‘/var/run/mtab’ or ‘/etc/mtab’.
Both files share the same syntax and it is crucial that this syntax is
followed all the time.  Therefore it is best to never directly write the
files.  The functions described in this section can do this and they
also provide the functionality to convert the external textual
representation to the internal representation.

   Note that the ‘fstab’ and ‘mtab’ files are maintained on a system by
_convention_.  It is possible for the files not to exist or not to be
consistent with what is really mounted or available to mount, if the
system’s administration policy allows it.  But programs that mount and
unmount filesystems typically maintain and use these files as described
herein.

   The filenames given above should never be used directly.  The
portable way to handle these file is to use the macro ‘_PATH_FSTAB’,
defined in ‘fstab.h’, or ‘_PATH_MNTTAB’, defined in ‘mntent.h’ and
‘paths.h’, for ‘fstab’; and the macro ‘_PATH_MOUNTED’, also defined in
‘mntent.h’ and ‘paths.h’, for ‘mtab’.  There are also two alternate
macro names ‘FSTAB’, ‘MNTTAB’, and ‘MOUNTED’ defined but these names are
deprecated and kept only for backward compatibility.  The names
‘_PATH_MNTTAB’ and ‘_PATH_MOUNTED’ should always be used.

* Menu:

* fstab::                       The ‘fstab’ file
* mtab::                        The ‘mtab’ file
* Other Mount Information::     Other (non-libc) sources of mount information


File: libc.info,  Node: fstab,  Next: mtab,  Up: Mount Information

31.3.1.1 The ‘fstab’ file
.........................

The internal representation for entries of the file is ‘struct fstab’,
defined in ‘fstab.h’.

 -- Data Type: struct fstab
     This structure is used with the ‘getfsent’, ‘getfsspec’, and
     ‘getfsfile’ functions.

     ‘char *fs_spec’
          This element describes the device from which the filesystem is
          mounted.  Normally this is the name of a special device, such
          as a hard disk partition, but it could also be a more or less
          generic string.  For "NFS" it would be a hostname and
          directory name combination.

          Even though the element is not declared ‘const’ it shouldn’t
          be modified.  The missing ‘const’ has historic reasons, since
          this function predates ISO C. The same is true for the other
          string elements of this structure.

     ‘char *fs_file’
          This describes the mount point on the local system.  I.e.,
          accessing any file in this filesystem has implicitly or
          explicitly this string as a prefix.

     ‘char *fs_vfstype’
          This is the type of the filesystem.  Depending on what the
          underlying kernel understands it can be any string.

     ‘char *fs_mntops’
          This is a string containing options passed to the kernel with
          the ‘mount’ call.  Again, this can be almost anything.  There
          can be more than one option, separated from the others by a
          comma.  Each option consists of a name and an optional value
          part, introduced by an ‘=’ character.

          If the value of this element must be processed it should
          ideally be done using the ‘getsubopt’ function; see *note
          Suboptions::.

     ‘const char *fs_type’
          This name is poorly chosen.  This element points to a string
          (possibly in the ‘fs_mntops’ string) which describes the modes
          with which the filesystem is mounted.  ‘fstab’ defines five
          macros to describe the possible values:

          ‘FSTAB_RW’
               The filesystems gets mounted with read and write enabled.
          ‘FSTAB_RQ’
               The filesystems gets mounted with read and write enabled.
               Write access is restricted by quotas.
          ‘FSTAB_RO’
               The filesystem gets mounted read-only.
          ‘FSTAB_SW’
               This is not a real filesystem, it is a swap device.
          ‘FSTAB_XX’
               This entry from the ‘fstab’ file is totally ignored.

          Testing for equality with these value must happen using
          ‘strcmp’ since these are all strings.  Comparing the pointer
          will probably always fail.

     ‘int fs_freq’
          This element describes the dump frequency in days.

     ‘int fs_passno’
          This element describes the pass number on parallel dumps.  It
          is closely related to the ‘dump’ utility used on Unix systems.

   To read the entire content of the of the ‘fstab’ file the GNU C
Library contains a set of three functions which are designed in the
usual way.

 -- Function: int setfsent (void)
     Preliminary: | MT-Unsafe race:fsent | AS-Unsafe heap corrupt lock |
     AC-Unsafe corrupt lock mem fd | *Note POSIX Safety Concepts::.

     This function makes sure that the internal read pointer for the
     ‘fstab’ file is at the beginning of the file.  This is done by
     either opening the file or resetting the read pointer.

     Since the file handle is internal to the libc this function is not
     thread-safe.

     This function returns a non-zero value if the operation was
     successful and the ‘getfs*’ functions can be used to read the
     entries of the file.

 -- Function: void endfsent (void)
     Preliminary: | MT-Unsafe race:fsent | AS-Unsafe heap corrupt lock |
     AC-Unsafe corrupt lock mem fd | *Note POSIX Safety Concepts::.

     This function makes sure that all resources acquired by a prior
     call to ‘setfsent’ (explicitly or implicitly by calling ‘getfsent’)
     are freed.

 -- Function: struct fstab * getfsent (void)
     Preliminary: | MT-Unsafe race:fsent locale | AS-Unsafe corrupt heap
     lock | AC-Unsafe corrupt lock mem | *Note POSIX Safety Concepts::.

     This function returns the next entry of the ‘fstab’ file.  If this
     is the first call to any of the functions handling ‘fstab’ since
     program start or the last call of ‘endfsent’, the file will be
     opened.

     The function returns a pointer to a variable of type ‘struct
     fstab’.  This variable is shared by all threads and therefore this
     function is not thread-safe.  If an error occurred ‘getfsent’
     returns a ‘NULL’ pointer.

 -- Function: struct fstab * getfsspec (const char *NAME)
     Preliminary: | MT-Unsafe race:fsent locale | AS-Unsafe corrupt heap
     lock | AC-Unsafe corrupt lock mem | *Note POSIX Safety Concepts::.

     This function returns the next entry of the ‘fstab’ file which has
     a string equal to NAME pointed to by the ‘fs_spec’ element.  Since
     there is normally exactly one entry for each special device it
     makes no sense to call this function more than once for the same
     argument.  If this is the first call to any of the functions
     handling ‘fstab’ since program start or the last call of
     ‘endfsent’, the file will be opened.

     The function returns a pointer to a variable of type ‘struct
     fstab’.  This variable is shared by all threads and therefore this
     function is not thread-safe.  If an error occurred ‘getfsent’
     returns a ‘NULL’ pointer.

 -- Function: struct fstab * getfsfile (const char *NAME)
     Preliminary: | MT-Unsafe race:fsent locale | AS-Unsafe corrupt heap
     lock | AC-Unsafe corrupt lock mem | *Note POSIX Safety Concepts::.

     This function returns the next entry of the ‘fstab’ file which has
     a string equal to NAME pointed to by the ‘fs_file’ element.  Since
     there is normally exactly one entry for each mount point it makes
     no sense to call this function more than once for the same
     argument.  If this is the first call to any of the functions
     handling ‘fstab’ since program start or the last call of
     ‘endfsent’, the file will be opened.

     The function returns a pointer to a variable of type ‘struct
     fstab’.  This variable is shared by all threads and therefore this
     function is not thread-safe.  If an error occurred ‘getfsent’
     returns a ‘NULL’ pointer.


File: libc.info,  Node: mtab,  Next: Other Mount Information,  Prev: fstab,  Up: Mount Information

31.3.1.2 The ‘mtab’ file
........................

The following functions and data structure access the ‘mtab’ file.

 -- Data Type: struct mntent
     This structure is used with the ‘getmntent’, ‘getmntent_t’,
     ‘addmntent’, and ‘hasmntopt’ functions.

     ‘char *mnt_fsname’
          This element contains a pointer to a string describing the
          name of the special device from which the filesystem is
          mounted.  It corresponds to the ‘fs_spec’ element in ‘struct
          fstab’.

     ‘char *mnt_dir’
          This element points to a string describing the mount point of
          the filesystem.  It corresponds to the ‘fs_file’ element in
          ‘struct fstab’.

     ‘char *mnt_type’
          ‘mnt_type’ describes the filesystem type and is therefore
          equivalent to ‘fs_vfstype’ in ‘struct fstab’.  ‘mntent.h’
          defines a few symbolic names for some of the values this
          string can have.  But since the kernel can support arbitrary
          filesystems it does not make much sense to give them symbolic
          names.  If one knows the symbol name one also knows the
          filesystem name.  Nevertheless here follows the list of the
          symbols provided in ‘mntent.h’.

          ‘MNTTYPE_IGNORE’
               This symbol expands to ‘"ignore"’.  The value is sometime
               used in ‘fstab’ files to make sure entries are not used
               without removing them.
          ‘MNTTYPE_NFS’
               Expands to ‘"nfs"’.  Using this macro sometimes could
               make sense since it names the default NFS implementation,
               in case both version 2 and 3 are supported.
          ‘MNTTYPE_SWAP’
               This symbol expands to ‘"swap"’.  It names the special
               ‘fstab’ entry which names one of the possibly multiple
               swap partitions.

     ‘char *mnt_opts’
          The element contains a string describing the options used
          while mounting the filesystem.  As for the equivalent element
          ‘fs_mntops’ of ‘struct fstab’ it is best to use the function
          ‘getsubopt’ (*note Suboptions::) to access the parts of this
          string.

          The ‘mntent.h’ file defines a number of macros with string
          values which correspond to some of the options understood by
          the kernel.  There might be many more options which are
          possible so it doesn’t make much sense to rely on these macros
          but to be consistent here is the list:

          ‘MNTOPT_DEFAULTS’
               Expands to ‘"defaults"’.  This option should be used
               alone since it indicates all values for the customizable
               values are chosen to be the default.
          ‘MNTOPT_RO’
               Expands to ‘"ro"’.  See the ‘FSTAB_RO’ value, it means
               the filesystem is mounted read-only.
          ‘MNTOPT_RW’
               Expand to ‘"rw"’.  See the ‘FSTAB_RW’ value, it means the
               filesystem is mounted with read and write permissions.
          ‘MNTOPT_SUID’
               Expands to ‘"suid"’.  This means that the SUID bit (*note
               How Change Persona::) is respected when a program from
               the filesystem is started.
          ‘MNTOPT_NOSUID’
               Expands to ‘"nosuid"’.  This is the opposite of
               ‘MNTOPT_SUID’, the SUID bit for all files from the
               filesystem is ignored.
          ‘MNTOPT_NOAUTO’
               Expands to ‘"noauto"’.  At startup time the ‘mount’
               program will ignore this entry if it is started with the
               ‘-a’ option to mount all filesystems mentioned in the
               ‘fstab’ file.

          As for the ‘FSTAB_*’ entries introduced above it is important
          to use ‘strcmp’ to check for equality.

     ‘mnt_freq’
          This elements corresponds to ‘fs_freq’ and also specifies the
          frequency in days in which dumps are made.

     ‘mnt_passno’
          This element is equivalent to ‘fs_passno’ with the same
          meaning which is uninteresting for all programs beside ‘dump’.

   For accessing the ‘mtab’ file there is again a set of three functions
to access all entries in a row.  Unlike the functions to handle ‘fstab’
these functions do not access a fixed file and there is even a thread
safe variant of the get function.  Beside this the GNU C Library
contains functions to alter the file and test for specific options.

 -- Function: FILE * setmntent (const char *FILE, const char *MODE)
     Preliminary: | MT-Safe | AS-Unsafe heap lock | AC-Unsafe mem fd
     lock | *Note POSIX Safety Concepts::.

     The ‘setmntent’ function prepares the file named FILE which must be
     in the format of a ‘fstab’ and ‘mtab’ file for the upcoming
     processing through the other functions of the family.  The MODE
     parameter can be chosen in the way the OPENTYPE parameter for
     ‘fopen’ (*note Opening Streams::) can be chosen.  If the file is
     opened for writing the file is also allowed to be empty.

     If the file was successfully opened ‘setmntent’ returns a file
     descriptor for future use.  Otherwise the return value is ‘NULL’
     and ‘errno’ is set accordingly.

 -- Function: int endmntent (FILE *STREAM)
     Preliminary: | MT-Safe | AS-Unsafe heap lock | AC-Unsafe lock mem
     fd | *Note POSIX Safety Concepts::.

     This function takes for the STREAM parameter a file handle which
     previously was returned from the ‘setmntent’ call.  ‘endmntent’
     closes the stream and frees all resources.

     The return value is 1 unless an error occurred in which case it is
     0.

 -- Function: struct mntent * getmntent (FILE *STREAM)
     Preliminary: | MT-Unsafe race:mntentbuf locale | AS-Unsafe corrupt
     heap init | AC-Unsafe init corrupt lock mem | *Note POSIX Safety
     Concepts::.

     The ‘getmntent’ function takes as the parameter a file handle
     previously returned by successful call to ‘setmntent’.  It returns
     a pointer to a static variable of type ‘struct mntent’ which is
     filled with the information from the next entry from the file
     currently read.

     The file format used prescribes the use of spaces or tab characters
     to separate the fields.  This makes it harder to use name
     containing one of these characters (e.g., mount points using
     spaces).  Therefore these characters are encoded in the files and
     the ‘getmntent’ function takes care of the decoding while reading
     the entries back in.  ‘'\040'’ is used to encode a space character,
     ‘'\011'’ to encode a tab character, ‘'\012'’ to encode a newline
     character, and ‘'\\'’ to encode a backslash.

     If there was an error or the end of the file is reached the return
     value is ‘NULL’.

     This function is not thread-safe since all calls to this function
     return a pointer to the same static variable.  ‘getmntent_r’ should
     be used in situations where multiple threads access the file.

 -- Function: struct mntent * getmntent_r (FILE *STREAM, struct mntent
          *RESULT, char *BUFFER, int BUFSIZE)
     Preliminary: | MT-Safe locale | AS-Unsafe corrupt heap | AC-Unsafe
     corrupt lock mem | *Note POSIX Safety Concepts::.

     The ‘getmntent_r’ function is the reentrant variant of ‘getmntent’.
     It also returns the next entry from the file and returns a pointer.
     The actual variable the values are stored in is not static, though.
     Instead the function stores the values in the variable pointed to
     by the RESULT parameter.  Additional information (e.g., the strings
     pointed to by the elements of the result) are kept in the buffer of
     size BUFSIZE pointed to by BUFFER.

     Escaped characters (space, tab, backslash) are converted back in
     the same way as it happens for ‘getmentent’.

     The function returns a ‘NULL’ pointer in error cases.  Errors could
     be:
        • error while reading the file,
        • end of file reached,
        • BUFSIZE is too small for reading a complete new entry.

 -- Function: int addmntent (FILE *STREAM, const struct mntent *MNT)
     Preliminary: | MT-Safe race:stream locale | AS-Unsafe corrupt |
     AC-Unsafe corrupt | *Note POSIX Safety Concepts::.

     The ‘addmntent’ function allows adding a new entry to the file
     previously opened with ‘setmntent’.  The new entries are always
     appended.  I.e., even if the position of the file descriptor is not
     at the end of the file this function does not overwrite an existing
     entry following the current position.

     The implication of this is that to remove an entry from a file one
     has to create a new file while leaving out the entry to be removed
     and after closing the file remove the old one and rename the new
     file to the chosen name.

     This function takes care of spaces and tab characters in the names
     to be written to the file.  It converts them and the backslash
     character into the format describe in the ‘getmntent’ description
     above.

     This function returns 0 in case the operation was successful.
     Otherwise the return value is 1 and ‘errno’ is set appropriately.

 -- Function: char * hasmntopt (const struct mntent *MNT, const char
          *OPT)
     Preliminary: | MT-Safe | AS-Safe | AC-Safe | *Note POSIX Safety
     Concepts::.

     This function can be used to check whether the string pointed to by
     the ‘mnt_opts’ element of the variable pointed to by MNT contains
     the option OPT.  If this is true a pointer to the beginning of the
     option in the ‘mnt_opts’ element is returned.  If no such option
     exists the function returns ‘NULL’.

     This function is useful to test whether a specific option is
     present but when all options have to be processed one is better off
     with using the ‘getsubopt’ function to iterate over all options in
     the string.


File: libc.info,  Node: Other Mount Information,  Prev: mtab,  Up: Mount Information

31.3.1.3 Other (Non-libc) Sources of Mount Information
......................................................

On a system with a Linux kernel and the ‘proc’ filesystem, you can get
information on currently mounted filesystems from the file ‘mounts’ in
the ‘proc’ filesystem.  Its format is similar to that of the ‘mtab’
file, but represents what is truly mounted without relying on facilities
outside the kernel to keep ‘mtab’ up to date.


File: libc.info,  Node: Mount-Unmount-Remount,  Prev: Mount Information,  Up: Filesystem Handling

31.3.2 Mount, Unmount, Remount
------------------------------

This section describes the functions for mounting, unmounting, and
remounting filesystems.

   Only the superuser can mount, unmount, or remount a filesystem.

   These functions do not access the ‘fstab’ and ‘mtab’ files.  You
should maintain and use these separately.  *Note Mount Information::.

   The symbols in this section are declared in ‘sys/mount.h’.

 -- Function: int mount (const char *SPECIAL_FILE, const char *DIR,
          const char *FSTYPE, unsigned long int OPTIONS, const void
          *DATA)
     Preliminary: | MT-Safe | AS-Safe | AC-Safe | *Note POSIX Safety
     Concepts::.

     ‘mount’ mounts or remounts a filesystem.  The two operations are
     quite different and are merged rather unnaturally into this one
     function.  The ‘MS_REMOUNT’ option, explained below, determines
     whether ‘mount’ mounts or remounts.

     For a mount, the filesystem on the block device represented by the
     device special file named SPECIAL_FILE gets mounted over the mount
     point DIR.  This means that the directory DIR (along with any files
     in it) is no longer visible; in its place (and still with the name
     DIR) is the root directory of the filesystem on the device.

     As an exception, if the filesystem type (see below) is one which is
     not based on a device (e.g.  “proc”), ‘mount’ instantiates a
     filesystem and mounts it over DIR and ignores SPECIAL_FILE.

     For a remount, DIR specifies the mount point where the filesystem
     to be remounted is (and remains) mounted and SPECIAL_FILE is
     ignored.  Remounting a filesystem means changing the options that
     control operations on the filesystem while it is mounted.  It does
     not mean unmounting and mounting again.

     For a mount, you must identify the type of the filesystem as
     FSTYPE.  This type tells the kernel how to access the filesystem
     and can be thought of as the name of a filesystem driver.  The
     acceptable values are system dependent.  On a system with a Linux
     kernel and the ‘proc’ filesystem, the list of possible values is in
     the file ‘filesystems’ in the ‘proc’ filesystem (e.g.  type ‘cat
     /proc/filesystems’ to see the list).  With a Linux kernel, the
     types of filesystems that ‘mount’ can mount, and their type names,
     depends on what filesystem drivers are configured into the kernel
     or loaded as loadable kernel modules.  An example of a common value
     for FSTYPE is ‘ext2’.

     For a remount, ‘mount’ ignores FSTYPE.

     OPTIONS specifies a variety of options that apply until the
     filesystem is unmounted or remounted.  The precise meaning of an
     option depends on the filesystem and with some filesystems, an
     option may have no effect at all.  Furthermore, for some
     filesystems, some of these options (but never ‘MS_RDONLY’) can be
     overridden for individual file accesses via ‘ioctl’.

     OPTIONS is a bit string with bit fields defined using the following
     mask and masked value macros:

     ‘MS_MGC_MASK’
          This multibit field contains a magic number.  If it does not
          have the value ‘MS_MGC_VAL’, ‘mount’ assumes all the following
          bits are zero and the DATA argument is a null string,
          regardless of their actual values.

     ‘MS_REMOUNT’
          This bit on means to remount the filesystem.  Off means to
          mount it.

     ‘MS_RDONLY’
          This bit on specifies that no writing to the filesystem shall
          be allowed while it is mounted.  This cannot be overridden by
          ‘ioctl’.  This option is available on nearly all filesystems.

     ‘S_IMMUTABLE’
          This bit on specifies that no writing to the files in the
          filesystem shall be allowed while it is mounted.  This can be
          overridden for a particular file access by a properly
          privileged call to ‘ioctl’.  This option is a relatively new
          invention and is not available on many filesystems.

     ‘S_APPEND’
          This bit on specifies that the only file writing that shall be
          allowed while the filesystem is mounted is appending.  Some
          filesystems allow this to be overridden for a particular
          process by a properly privileged call to ‘ioctl’.  This is a
          relatively new invention and is not available on many
          filesystems.

     ‘MS_NOSUID’
          This bit on specifies that Setuid and Setgid permissions on
          files in the filesystem shall be ignored while it is mounted.

     ‘MS_NOEXEC’
          This bit on specifies that no files in the filesystem shall be
          executed while the filesystem is mounted.

     ‘MS_NODEV’
          This bit on specifies that no device special files in the
          filesystem shall be accessible while the filesystem is
          mounted.

     ‘MS_SYNCHRONOUS’
          This bit on specifies that all writes to the filesystem while
          it is mounted shall be synchronous; i.e., data shall be synced
          before each write completes rather than held in the buffer
          cache.

     ‘MS_MANDLOCK’
          This bit on specifies that mandatory locks on files shall be
          permitted while the filesystem is mounted.

     ‘MS_NOATIME’
          This bit on specifies that access times of files shall not be
          updated when the files are accessed while the filesystem is
          mounted.

     ‘MS_NODIRATIME’
          This bit on specifies that access times of directories shall
          not be updated when the directories are accessed while the
          filesystem in mounted.

     Any bits not covered by the above masks should be set off;
     otherwise, results are undefined.

     The meaning of DATA depends on the filesystem type and is
     controlled entirely by the filesystem driver in the kernel.

     Example:

          #include <sys/mount.h>

          mount("/dev/hdb", "/cdrom", MS_MGC_VAL | MS_RDONLY | MS_NOSUID, "");

          mount("/dev/hda2", "/mnt", MS_MGC_VAL | MS_REMOUNT, "");


     Appropriate arguments for ‘mount’ are conventionally recorded in
     the ‘fstab’ table.  *Note Mount Information::.

     The return value is zero if the mount or remount is successful.
     Otherwise, it is ‘-1’ and ‘errno’ is set appropriately.  The values
     of ‘errno’ are filesystem dependent, but here is a general list:

     ‘EPERM’
          The process is not superuser.
     ‘ENODEV’
          The file system type FSTYPE is not known to the kernel.
     ‘ENOTBLK’
          The file DEV is not a block device special file.
     ‘EBUSY’

             • The device is already mounted.

             • The mount point is busy.  (E.g.  it is some process’
               working directory or has a filesystem mounted on it
               already).

             • The request is to remount read-only, but there are files
               open for write.

     ‘EINVAL’

             • A remount was attempted, but there is no filesystem
               mounted over the specified mount point.

             • The supposed filesystem has an invalid superblock.

     ‘EACCES’

             • The filesystem is inherently read-only (possibly due to a
               switch on the device) and the process attempted to mount
               it read/write (by setting the ‘MS_RDONLY’ bit off).

             • SPECIAL_FILE or DIR is not accessible due to file
               permissions.

             • SPECIAL_FILE is not accessible because it is in a
               filesystem that is mounted with the ‘MS_NODEV’ option.

     ‘EM_FILE’
          The table of dummy devices is full.  ‘mount’ needs to create a
          dummy device (aka “unnamed” device) if the filesystem being
          mounted is not one that uses a device.

 -- Function: int umount2 (const char *FILE, int FLAGS)
     Preliminary: | MT-Safe | AS-Safe | AC-Safe | *Note POSIX Safety
     Concepts::.

     ‘umount2’ unmounts a filesystem.

     You can identify the filesystem to unmount either by the device
     special file that contains the filesystem or by the mount point.
     The effect is the same.  Specify either as the string FILE.

     FLAGS contains the one-bit field identified by the following mask
     macro:

     ‘MNT_FORCE’
          This bit on means to force the unmounting even if the
          filesystem is busy, by making it unbusy first.  If the bit is
          off and the filesystem is busy, ‘umount2’ fails with ‘errno’ =
          ‘EBUSY’.  Depending on the filesystem, this may override all,
          some, or no busy conditions.

     All other bits in FLAGS should be set to zero; otherwise, the
     result is undefined.

     Example:

          #include <sys/mount.h>

          umount2("/mnt", MNT_FORCE);

          umount2("/dev/hdd1", 0);


     After the filesystem is unmounted, the directory that was the mount
     point is visible, as are any files in it.

     As part of unmounting, ‘umount2’ syncs the filesystem.

     If the unmounting is successful, the return value is zero.
     Otherwise, it is ‘-1’ and ‘errno’ is set accordingly:

     ‘EPERM’
          The process is not superuser.
     ‘EBUSY’
          The filesystem cannot be unmounted because it is busy.  E.g.
          it contains a directory that is some process’s working
          directory or a file that some process has open.  With some
          filesystems in some cases, you can avoid this failure with the
          ‘MNT_FORCE’ option.

     ‘EINVAL’
          FILE validly refers to a file, but that file is neither a
          mount point nor a device special file of a currently mounted
          filesystem.

     This function is not available on all systems.

 -- Function: int umount (const char *FILE)
     Preliminary: | MT-Safe | AS-Safe | AC-Safe | *Note POSIX Safety
     Concepts::.

     ‘umount’ does the same thing as ‘umount2’ with FLAGS set to zeroes.
     It is more widely available than ‘umount2’ but since it lacks the
     possibility to forcefully unmount a filesystem is deprecated when
     ‘umount2’ is also available.


File: libc.info,  Node: System Parameters,  Prev: Filesystem Handling,  Up: System Management

31.4 System Parameters
======================

This section describes the ‘sysctl’ function, which gets and sets a
variety of system parameters.

   The symbols used in this section are declared in the file
‘sys/sysctl.h’.

 -- Function: int sysctl (int *NAMES, int NLEN, void *OLDVAL, size_t
          *OLDLENP, void *NEWVAL, size_t NEWLEN)
     Preliminary: | MT-Safe | AS-Safe | AC-Safe | *Note POSIX Safety
     Concepts::.

     ‘sysctl’ gets or sets a specified system parameter.  There are so
     many of these parameters that it is not practical to list them all
     here, but here are some examples:

        • network domain name
        • paging parameters
        • network Address Resolution Protocol timeout time
        • maximum number of files that may be open
        • root filesystem device
        • when kernel was built

     The set of available parameters depends on the kernel configuration
     and can change while the system is running, particularly when you
     load and unload loadable kernel modules.

     The system parameters with which ‘syslog’ is concerned are arranged
     in a hierarchical structure like a hierarchical filesystem.  To
     identify a particular parameter, you specify a path through the
     structure in a way analogous to specifying the pathname of a file.
     Each component of the path is specified by an integer and each of
     these integers has a macro defined for it by ‘sys/sysctl.h’.  NAMES
     is the path, in the form of an array of integers.  Each component
     of the path is one element of the array, in order.  NLEN is the
     number of components in the path.

     For example, the first component of the path for all the paging
     parameters is the value ‘CTL_VM’.  For the free page thresholds,
     the second component of the path is ‘VM_FREEPG’.  So to get the
     free page threshold values, make NAMES an array containing the two
     elements ‘CTL_VM’ and ‘VM_FREEPG’ and make NLEN = 2.

     The format of the value of a parameter depends on the parameter.
     Sometimes it is an integer; sometimes it is an ASCII string;
     sometimes it is an elaborate structure.  In the case of the free
     page thresholds used in the example above, the parameter value is a
     structure containing several integers.

     In any case, you identify a place to return the parameter’s value
     with OLDVAL and specify the amount of storage available at that
     location as *OLDLENP.  *OLDLENP does double duty because it is also
     the output location that contains the actual length of the returned
     value.

     If you don’t want the parameter value returned, specify a null
     pointer for OLDVAL.

     To set the parameter, specify the address and length of the new
     value as NEWVAL and NEWLEN.  If you don’t want to set the
     parameter, specify a null pointer as NEWVAL.

     If you get and set a parameter in the same ‘sysctl’ call, the value
     returned is the value of the parameter before it was set.

     Each system parameter has a set of permissions similar to the
     permissions for a file (including the permissions on directories in
     its path) that determine whether you may get or set it.  For the
     purposes of these permissions, every parameter is considered to be
     owned by the superuser and Group 0 so processes with that effective
     uid or gid may have more access to system parameters.  Unlike with
     files, the superuser does not invariably have full permission to
     all system parameters, because some of them are designed not to be
     changed ever.

     ‘sysctl’ returns a zero return value if it succeeds.  Otherwise, it
     returns ‘-1’ and sets ‘errno’ appropriately.  Besides the failures
     that apply to all system calls, the following are the ‘errno’ codes
     for all possible failures:

     ‘EPERM’
          The process is not permitted to access one of the components
          of the path of the system parameter or is not permitted to
          access the system parameter itself in the way (read or write)
          that it requested.
     ‘ENOTDIR’
          There is no system parameter corresponding to NAME.
     ‘EFAULT’
          OLDVAL is not null, which means the process wanted to read the
          parameter, but *OLDLENP is zero, so there is no place to
          return it.
     ‘EINVAL’
             • The process attempted to set a system parameter to a
               value that is not valid for that parameter.
             • The space provided for the return of the system parameter
               is not the right size for that parameter.
     ‘ENOMEM’
          This value may be returned instead of the more correct
          ‘EINVAL’ in some cases where the space provided for the return
          of the system parameter is too small.

   If you have a Linux kernel with the ‘proc’ filesystem, you can get
and set most of the same parameters by reading and writing to files in
the ‘sys’ directory of the ‘proc’ filesystem.  In the ‘sys’ directory,
the directory structure represents the hierarchical structure of the
parameters.  E.g.  you can display the free page thresholds with
     cat /proc/sys/vm/freepages

   Some more traditional and more widely available, though less general,
GNU C Library functions for getting and setting some of the same system
parameters are:

   • ‘getdomainname’, ‘setdomainname’
   • ‘gethostname’, ‘sethostname’ (*Note Host Identification::.)
   • ‘uname’ (*Note Platform Type::.)


File: libc.info,  Node: System Configuration,  Next: Cryptographic Functions,  Prev: System Management,  Up: Top

32 System Configuration Parameters
**********************************

The functions and macros listed in this chapter give information about
configuration parameters of the operating system—for example, capacity
limits, presence of optional POSIX features, and the default path for
executable files (*note String Parameters::).

* Menu:

* General Limits::           Constants and functions that describe
				various process-related limits that have
				one uniform value for any given machine.
* System Options::           Optional POSIX features.
* Version Supported::        Version numbers of POSIX.1 and POSIX.2.
* Sysconf::                  Getting specific configuration values
                                of general limits and system options.
* Minimums::                 Minimum values for general limits.

* Limits for Files::         Size limitations that pertain to individual files.
                                These can vary between file systems
                                or even from file to file.
* Options for Files::        Optional features that some files may support.
* File Minimums::            Minimum values for file limits.
* Pathconf::                 Getting the limit values for a particular file.

* Utility Limits::           Capacity limits of some POSIX.2 utility programs.
* Utility Minimums::         Minimum allowable values of those limits.

* String Parameters::        Getting the default search path.


File: libc.info,  Node: General Limits,  Next: System Options,  Up: System Configuration

32.1 General Capacity Limits
============================

The POSIX.1 and POSIX.2 standards specify a number of parameters that
describe capacity limitations of the system.  These limits can be fixed
constants for a given operating system, or they can vary from machine to
machine.  For example, some limit values may be configurable by the
system administrator, either at run time or by rebuilding the kernel,
and this should not require recompiling application programs.

   Each of the following limit parameters has a macro that is defined in
‘limits.h’ only if the system has a fixed, uniform limit for the
parameter in question.  If the system allows different file systems or
files to have different limits, then the macro is undefined; use
‘sysconf’ to find out the limit that applies at a particular time on a
particular machine.  *Note Sysconf::.

   Each of these parameters also has another macro, with a name starting
with ‘_POSIX’, which gives the lowest value that the limit is allowed to
have on _any_ POSIX system.  *Note Minimums::.

 -- Macro: int ARG_MAX
     If defined, the unvarying maximum combined length of the ARGV and
     ENVIRON arguments that can be passed to the ‘exec’ functions.

 -- Macro: int CHILD_MAX
     If defined, the unvarying maximum number of processes that can
     exist with the same real user ID at any one time.  In BSD and GNU,
     this is controlled by the ‘RLIMIT_NPROC’ resource limit; *note
     Limits on Resources::.

 -- Macro: int OPEN_MAX
     If defined, the unvarying maximum number of files that a single
     process can have open simultaneously.  In BSD and GNU, this is
     controlled by the ‘RLIMIT_NOFILE’ resource limit; *note Limits on
     Resources::.

 -- Macro: int STREAM_MAX
     If defined, the unvarying maximum number of streams that a single
     process can have open simultaneously.  *Note Opening Streams::.

 -- Macro: int TZNAME_MAX
     If defined, the unvarying maximum length of a time zone name.
     *Note Time Zone Functions::.

   These limit macros are always defined in ‘limits.h’.

 -- Macro: int NGROUPS_MAX
     The maximum number of supplementary group IDs that one process can
     have.

     The value of this macro is actually a lower bound for the maximum.
     That is, you can count on being able to have that many
     supplementary group IDs, but a particular machine might let you
     have even more.  You can use ‘sysconf’ to see whether a particular
     machine will let you have more (*note Sysconf::).

 -- Macro: ssize_t SSIZE_MAX
     The largest value that can fit in an object of type ‘ssize_t’.
     Effectively, this is the limit on the number of bytes that can be
     read or written in a single operation.

     This macro is defined in all POSIX systems because this limit is
     never configurable.

 -- Macro: int RE_DUP_MAX
     The largest number of repetitions you are guaranteed is allowed in
     the construct ‘\{MIN,MAX\}’ in a regular expression.

     The value of this macro is actually a lower bound for the maximum.
     That is, you can count on being able to have that many repetitions,
     but a particular machine might let you have even more.  You can use
     ‘sysconf’ to see whether a particular machine will let you have
     more (*note Sysconf::).  And even the value that ‘sysconf’ tells
     you is just a lower bound—larger values might work.

     This macro is defined in all POSIX.2 systems, because POSIX.2 says
     it should always be defined even if there is no specific imposed
     limit.


File: libc.info,  Node: System Options,  Next: Version Supported,  Prev: General Limits,  Up: System Configuration

32.2 Overall System Options
===========================

POSIX defines certain system-specific options that not all POSIX systems
support.  Since these options are provided in the kernel, not in the
library, simply using the GNU C Library does not guarantee any of these
features is supported; it depends on the system you are using.

   You can test for the availability of a given option using the macros
in this section, together with the function ‘sysconf’.  The macros are
defined only if you include ‘unistd.h’.

   For the following macros, if the macro is defined in ‘unistd.h’, then
the option is supported.  Otherwise, the option may or may not be
supported; use ‘sysconf’ to find out.  *Note Sysconf::.

 -- Macro: int _POSIX_JOB_CONTROL
     If this symbol is defined, it indicates that the system supports
     job control.  Otherwise, the implementation behaves as if all
     processes within a session belong to a single process group.  *Note
     Job Control::.

 -- Macro: int _POSIX_SAVED_IDS
     If this symbol is defined, it indicates that the system remembers
     the effective user and group IDs of a process before it executes an
     executable file with the set-user-ID or set-group-ID bits set, and
     that explicitly changing the effective user or group IDs back to
     these values is permitted.  If this option is not defined, then if
     a nonprivileged process changes its effective user or group ID to
     the real user or group ID of the process, it can’t change it back
     again.  *Note Enable/Disable Setuid::.

   For the following macros, if the macro is defined in ‘unistd.h’, then
its value indicates whether the option is supported.  A value of ‘-1’
means no, and any other value means yes.  If the macro is not defined,
then the option may or may not be supported; use ‘sysconf’ to find out.
*Note Sysconf::.

 -- Macro: int _POSIX2_C_DEV
     If this symbol is defined, it indicates that the system has the
     POSIX.2 C compiler command, ‘c89’.  The GNU C Library always
     defines this as ‘1’, on the assumption that you would not have
     installed it if you didn’t have a C compiler.

 -- Macro: int _POSIX2_FORT_DEV
     If this symbol is defined, it indicates that the system has the
     POSIX.2 Fortran compiler command, ‘fort77’.  The GNU C Library
     never defines this, because we don’t know what the system has.

 -- Macro: int _POSIX2_FORT_RUN
     If this symbol is defined, it indicates that the system has the
     POSIX.2 ‘asa’ command to interpret Fortran carriage control.  The
     GNU C Library never defines this, because we don’t know what the
     system has.

 -- Macro: int _POSIX2_LOCALEDEF
     If this symbol is defined, it indicates that the system has the
     POSIX.2 ‘localedef’ command.  The GNU C Library never defines this,
     because we don’t know what the system has.

 -- Macro: int _POSIX2_SW_DEV
     If this symbol is defined, it indicates that the system has the
     POSIX.2 commands ‘ar’, ‘make’, and ‘strip’.  The GNU C Library
     always defines this as ‘1’, on the assumption that you had to have
     ‘ar’ and ‘make’ to install the library, and it’s unlikely that
     ‘strip’ would be absent when those are present.


File: libc.info,  Node: Version Supported,  Next: Sysconf,  Prev: System Options,  Up: System Configuration

32.3 Which Version of POSIX is Supported
========================================

 -- Macro: long int _POSIX_VERSION
     This constant represents the version of the POSIX.1 standard to
     which the implementation conforms.  For an implementation
     conforming to the 1995 POSIX.1 standard, the value is the integer
     ‘199506L’.

     ‘_POSIX_VERSION’ is always defined (in ‘unistd.h’) in any POSIX
     system.

     *Usage Note:* Don’t try to test whether the system supports POSIX
     by including ‘unistd.h’ and then checking whether ‘_POSIX_VERSION’
     is defined.  On a non-POSIX system, this will probably fail because
     there is no ‘unistd.h’.  We do not know of _any_ way you can
     reliably test at compilation time whether your target system
     supports POSIX or whether ‘unistd.h’ exists.

 -- Macro: long int _POSIX2_C_VERSION
     This constant represents the version of the POSIX.2 standard which
     the library and system kernel support.  We don’t know what value
     this will be for the first version of the POSIX.2 standard, because
     the value is based on the year and month in which the standard is
     officially adopted.

     The value of this symbol says nothing about the utilities installed
     on the system.

     *Usage Note:* You can use this macro to tell whether a POSIX.1
     system library supports POSIX.2 as well.  Any POSIX.1 system
     contains ‘unistd.h’, so include that file and then test ‘defined
     (_POSIX2_C_VERSION)’.


File: libc.info,  Node: Sysconf,  Next: Minimums,  Prev: Version Supported,  Up: System Configuration

32.4 Using ‘sysconf’
====================

When your system has configurable system limits, you can use the
‘sysconf’ function to find out the value that applies to any particular
machine.  The function and the associated PARAMETER constants are
declared in the header file ‘unistd.h’.

* Menu:

* Sysconf Definition::        Detailed specifications of ‘sysconf’.
* Constants for Sysconf::     The list of parameters ‘sysconf’ can read.
* Examples of Sysconf::       How to use ‘sysconf’ and the parameter
				 macros properly together.


File: libc.info,  Node: Sysconf Definition,  Next: Constants for Sysconf,  Up: Sysconf

32.4.1 Definition of ‘sysconf’
------------------------------

 -- Function: long int sysconf (int PARAMETER)
     Preliminary: | MT-Safe env | AS-Unsafe lock heap | AC-Unsafe lock
     mem fd | *Note POSIX Safety Concepts::.

     This function is used to inquire about runtime system parameters.
     The PARAMETER argument should be one of the ‘_SC_’ symbols listed
     below.

     The normal return value from ‘sysconf’ is the value you requested.
     A value of ‘-1’ is returned both if the implementation does not
     impose a limit, and in case of an error.

     The following ‘errno’ error conditions are defined for this
     function:

     ‘EINVAL’
          The value of the PARAMETER is invalid.


File: libc.info,  Node: Constants for Sysconf,  Next: Examples of Sysconf,  Prev: Sysconf Definition,  Up: Sysconf

32.4.2 Constants for ‘sysconf’ Parameters
-----------------------------------------

Here are the symbolic constants for use as the PARAMETER argument to
‘sysconf’.  The values are all integer constants (more specifically,
enumeration type values).

‘_SC_ARG_MAX’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to ‘ARG_MAX’.

‘_SC_CHILD_MAX’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to ‘CHILD_MAX’.

‘_SC_OPEN_MAX’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to ‘OPEN_MAX’.

‘_SC_STREAM_MAX’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to ‘STREAM_MAX’.

‘_SC_TZNAME_MAX’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to ‘TZNAME_MAX’.

‘_SC_NGROUPS_MAX’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to ‘NGROUPS_MAX’.

‘_SC_JOB_CONTROL’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to ‘_POSIX_JOB_CONTROL’.

‘_SC_SAVED_IDS’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to ‘_POSIX_SAVED_IDS’.

‘_SC_VERSION’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to ‘_POSIX_VERSION’.

‘_SC_CLK_TCK’
     Inquire about the number of clock ticks per second; *note CPU
     Time::.  The corresponding parameter ‘CLK_TCK’ is obsolete.

‘_SC_CHARCLASS_NAME_MAX’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to maximal length allowed
     for a character class name in an extended locale specification.
     These extensions are not yet standardized and so this option is not
     standardized as well.

‘_SC_REALTIME_SIGNALS’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to
     ‘_POSIX_REALTIME_SIGNALS’.

‘_SC_PRIORITY_SCHEDULING’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to
     ‘_POSIX_PRIORITY_SCHEDULING’.

‘_SC_TIMERS’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to ‘_POSIX_TIMERS’.

‘_SC_ASYNCHRONOUS_IO’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to
     ‘_POSIX_ASYNCHRONOUS_IO’.

‘_SC_PRIORITIZED_IO’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to
     ‘_POSIX_PRIORITIZED_IO’.

‘_SC_SYNCHRONIZED_IO’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to
     ‘_POSIX_SYNCHRONIZED_IO’.

‘_SC_FSYNC’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to ‘_POSIX_FSYNC’.

‘_SC_MAPPED_FILES’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to ‘_POSIX_MAPPED_FILES’.

‘_SC_MEMLOCK’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to ‘_POSIX_MEMLOCK’.

‘_SC_MEMLOCK_RANGE’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to
     ‘_POSIX_MEMLOCK_RANGE’.

‘_SC_MEMORY_PROTECTION’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to
     ‘_POSIX_MEMORY_PROTECTION’.

‘_SC_MESSAGE_PASSING’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to
     ‘_POSIX_MESSAGE_PASSING’.

‘_SC_SEMAPHORES’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to ‘_POSIX_SEMAPHORES’.

‘_SC_SHARED_MEMORY_OBJECTS’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to
     ‘_POSIX_SHARED_MEMORY_OBJECTS’.

‘_SC_AIO_LISTIO_MAX’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to
     ‘_POSIX_AIO_LISTIO_MAX’.

‘_SC_AIO_MAX’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to ‘_POSIX_AIO_MAX’.

‘_SC_AIO_PRIO_DELTA_MAX’
     Inquire the value by which a process can decrease its asynchronous
     I/O priority level from its own scheduling priority.  This
     corresponds to the run-time invariant value ‘AIO_PRIO_DELTA_MAX’.

‘_SC_DELAYTIMER_MAX’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to
     ‘_POSIX_DELAYTIMER_MAX’.

‘_SC_MQ_OPEN_MAX’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to ‘_POSIX_MQ_OPEN_MAX’.

‘_SC_MQ_PRIO_MAX’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to ‘_POSIX_MQ_PRIO_MAX’.

‘_SC_RTSIG_MAX’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to ‘_POSIX_RTSIG_MAX’.

‘_SC_SEM_NSEMS_MAX’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to
     ‘_POSIX_SEM_NSEMS_MAX’.

‘_SC_SEM_VALUE_MAX’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to
     ‘_POSIX_SEM_VALUE_MAX’.

‘_SC_SIGQUEUE_MAX’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to ‘_POSIX_SIGQUEUE_MAX’.

‘_SC_TIMER_MAX’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to ‘_POSIX_TIMER_MAX’.

‘_SC_PII’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to ‘_POSIX_PII’.

‘_SC_PII_XTI’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to ‘_POSIX_PII_XTI’.

‘_SC_PII_SOCKET’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to ‘_POSIX_PII_SOCKET’.

‘_SC_PII_INTERNET’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to ‘_POSIX_PII_INTERNET’.

‘_SC_PII_OSI’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to ‘_POSIX_PII_OSI’.

‘_SC_SELECT’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to ‘_POSIX_SELECT’.

‘_SC_UIO_MAXIOV’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to ‘_POSIX_UIO_MAXIOV’.

‘_SC_PII_INTERNET_STREAM’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to
     ‘_POSIX_PII_INTERNET_STREAM’.

‘_SC_PII_INTERNET_DGRAM’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to
     ‘_POSIX_PII_INTERNET_DGRAM’.

‘_SC_PII_OSI_COTS’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to ‘_POSIX_PII_OSI_COTS’.

‘_SC_PII_OSI_CLTS’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to ‘_POSIX_PII_OSI_CLTS’.

‘_SC_PII_OSI_M’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to ‘_POSIX_PII_OSI_M’.

‘_SC_T_IOV_MAX’
     Inquire the value of the value associated with the ‘T_IOV_MAX’
     variable.

‘_SC_THREADS’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to ‘_POSIX_THREADS’.

‘_SC_THREAD_SAFE_FUNCTIONS’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to
     ‘_POSIX_THREAD_SAFE_FUNCTIONS’.

‘_SC_GETGR_R_SIZE_MAX’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to
     ‘_POSIX_GETGR_R_SIZE_MAX’.

‘_SC_GETPW_R_SIZE_MAX’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to
     ‘_POSIX_GETPW_R_SIZE_MAX’.

‘_SC_LOGIN_NAME_MAX’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to
     ‘_POSIX_LOGIN_NAME_MAX’.

‘_SC_TTY_NAME_MAX’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to ‘_POSIX_TTY_NAME_MAX’.

‘_SC_THREAD_DESTRUCTOR_ITERATIONS’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to
     ‘_POSIX_THREAD_DESTRUCTOR_ITERATIONS’.

‘_SC_THREAD_KEYS_MAX’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to
     ‘_POSIX_THREAD_KEYS_MAX’.

‘_SC_THREAD_STACK_MIN’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to
     ‘_POSIX_THREAD_STACK_MIN’.

‘_SC_THREAD_THREADS_MAX’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to
     ‘_POSIX_THREAD_THREADS_MAX’.

‘_SC_THREAD_ATTR_STACKADDR’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to
     a ‘_POSIX_THREAD_ATTR_STACKADDR’.

‘_SC_THREAD_ATTR_STACKSIZE’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to
     ‘_POSIX_THREAD_ATTR_STACKSIZE’.

‘_SC_THREAD_PRIORITY_SCHEDULING’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to
     ‘_POSIX_THREAD_PRIORITY_SCHEDULING’.

‘_SC_THREAD_PRIO_INHERIT’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to
     ‘_POSIX_THREAD_PRIO_INHERIT’.

‘_SC_THREAD_PRIO_PROTECT’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to
     ‘_POSIX_THREAD_PRIO_PROTECT’.

‘_SC_THREAD_PROCESS_SHARED’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to
     ‘_POSIX_THREAD_PROCESS_SHARED’.

‘_SC_2_C_DEV’
     Inquire about whether the system has the POSIX.2 C compiler
     command, ‘c89’.

‘_SC_2_FORT_DEV’
     Inquire about whether the system has the POSIX.2 Fortran compiler
     command, ‘fort77’.

‘_SC_2_FORT_RUN’
     Inquire about whether the system has the POSIX.2 ‘asa’ command to
     interpret Fortran carriage control.

‘_SC_2_LOCALEDEF’
     Inquire about whether the system has the POSIX.2 ‘localedef’
     command.

‘_SC_2_SW_DEV’
     Inquire about whether the system has the POSIX.2 commands ‘ar’,
     ‘make’, and ‘strip’.

‘_SC_BC_BASE_MAX’
     Inquire about the maximum value of ‘obase’ in the ‘bc’ utility.

‘_SC_BC_DIM_MAX’
     Inquire about the maximum size of an array in the ‘bc’ utility.

‘_SC_BC_SCALE_MAX’
     Inquire about the maximum value of ‘scale’ in the ‘bc’ utility.

‘_SC_BC_STRING_MAX’
     Inquire about the maximum size of a string constant in the ‘bc’
     utility.

‘_SC_COLL_WEIGHTS_MAX’
     Inquire about the maximum number of weights that can necessarily be
     used in defining the collating sequence for a locale.

‘_SC_EXPR_NEST_MAX’
     Inquire about the maximum number of expressions nested within
     parentheses when using the ‘expr’ utility.

‘_SC_LINE_MAX’
     Inquire about the maximum size of a text line that the POSIX.2 text
     utilities can handle.

‘_SC_EQUIV_CLASS_MAX’
     Inquire about the maximum number of weights that can be assigned to
     an entry of the ‘LC_COLLATE’ category ‘order’ keyword in a locale
     definition.  The GNU C Library does not presently support locale
     definitions.

‘_SC_VERSION’
     Inquire about the version number of POSIX.1 that the library and
     kernel support.

‘_SC_2_VERSION’
     Inquire about the version number of POSIX.2 that the system
     utilities support.

‘_SC_PAGESIZE’
     Inquire about the virtual memory page size of the machine.
     ‘getpagesize’ returns the same value (*note Query Memory
     Parameters::).

‘_SC_NPROCESSORS_CONF’
     Inquire about the number of configured processors.

‘_SC_NPROCESSORS_ONLN’
     Inquire about the number of processors online.

‘_SC_PHYS_PAGES’
     Inquire about the number of physical pages in the system.

‘_SC_AVPHYS_PAGES’
     Inquire about the number of available physical pages in the system.

‘_SC_ATEXIT_MAX’
     Inquire about the number of functions which can be registered as
     termination functions for ‘atexit’; *note Cleanups on Exit::.

‘_SC_XOPEN_VERSION’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to ‘_XOPEN_VERSION’.

‘_SC_XOPEN_XCU_VERSION’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to ‘_XOPEN_XCU_VERSION’.

‘_SC_XOPEN_UNIX’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to ‘_XOPEN_UNIX’.

‘_SC_XOPEN_REALTIME’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to ‘_XOPEN_REALTIME’.

‘_SC_XOPEN_REALTIME_THREADS’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to
     ‘_XOPEN_REALTIME_THREADS’.

‘_SC_XOPEN_LEGACY’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to ‘_XOPEN_LEGACY’.

‘_SC_XOPEN_CRYPT’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to ‘_XOPEN_CRYPT’.

‘_SC_XOPEN_ENH_I18N’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to ‘_XOPEN_ENH_I18N’.

‘_SC_XOPEN_SHM’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to ‘_XOPEN_SHM’.

‘_SC_XOPEN_XPG2’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to ‘_XOPEN_XPG2’.

‘_SC_XOPEN_XPG3’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to ‘_XOPEN_XPG3’.

‘_SC_XOPEN_XPG4’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to ‘_XOPEN_XPG4’.

‘_SC_CHAR_BIT’
     Inquire about the number of bits in a variable of type ‘char’.

‘_SC_CHAR_MAX’
     Inquire about the maximum value which can be stored in a variable
     of type ‘char’.

‘_SC_CHAR_MIN’
     Inquire about the minimum value which can be stored in a variable
     of type ‘char’.

‘_SC_INT_MAX’
     Inquire about the maximum value which can be stored in a variable
     of type ‘int’.

‘_SC_INT_MIN’
     Inquire about the minimum value which can be stored in a variable
     of type ‘int’.

‘_SC_LONG_BIT’
     Inquire about the number of bits in a variable of type ‘long int’.

‘_SC_WORD_BIT’
     Inquire about the number of bits in a variable of a register word.

‘_SC_MB_LEN_MAX’
     Inquire the maximum length of a multi-byte representation of a wide
     character value.

‘_SC_NZERO’
     Inquire about the value used to internally represent the zero
     priority level for the process execution.

‘SC_SSIZE_MAX’
     Inquire about the maximum value which can be stored in a variable
     of type ‘ssize_t’.

‘_SC_SCHAR_MAX’
     Inquire about the maximum value which can be stored in a variable
     of type ‘signed char’.

‘_SC_SCHAR_MIN’
     Inquire about the minimum value which can be stored in a variable
     of type ‘signed char’.

‘_SC_SHRT_MAX’
     Inquire about the maximum value which can be stored in a variable
     of type ‘short int’.

‘_SC_SHRT_MIN’
     Inquire about the minimum value which can be stored in a variable
     of type ‘short int’.

‘_SC_UCHAR_MAX’
     Inquire about the maximum value which can be stored in a variable
     of type ‘unsigned char’.

‘_SC_UINT_MAX’
     Inquire about the maximum value which can be stored in a variable
     of type ‘unsigned int’.

‘_SC_ULONG_MAX’
     Inquire about the maximum value which can be stored in a variable
     of type ‘unsigned long int’.

‘_SC_USHRT_MAX’
     Inquire about the maximum value which can be stored in a variable
     of type ‘unsigned short int’.

‘_SC_NL_ARGMAX’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to ‘NL_ARGMAX’.

‘_SC_NL_LANGMAX’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to ‘NL_LANGMAX’.

‘_SC_NL_MSGMAX’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to ‘NL_MSGMAX’.

‘_SC_NL_NMAX’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to ‘NL_NMAX’.

‘_SC_NL_SETMAX’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to ‘NL_SETMAX’.

‘_SC_NL_TEXTMAX’
     Inquire about the parameter corresponding to ‘NL_TEXTMAX’.


File: libc.info,  Node: Examples of Sysconf,  Prev: Constants for Sysconf,  Up: Sysconf

32.4.3 Examples of ‘sysconf’
----------------------------

We recommend that you first test for a macro definition for the
parameter you are interested in, and call ‘sysconf’ only if the macro is
not defined.  For example, here is how to test whether job control is
supported:

     int
     have_job_control (void)
     {
     #ifdef _POSIX_JOB_CONTROL
       return 1;
     #else
       int value = sysconf (_SC_JOB_CONTROL);
       if (value < 0)
         /* If the system is that badly wedged,
            there’s no use trying to go on.  */
         fatal (strerror (errno));
       return value;
     #endif
     }

   Here is how to get the value of a numeric limit:

     int
     get_child_max ()
     {
     #ifdef CHILD_MAX
       return CHILD_MAX;
     #else
       int value = sysconf (_SC_CHILD_MAX);
       if (value < 0)
         fatal (strerror (errno));
       return value;
     #endif
     }


File: libc.info,  Node: Minimums,  Next: Limits for Files,  Prev: Sysconf,  Up: System Configuration

32.5 Minimum Values for General Capacity Limits
===============================================

Here are the names for the POSIX minimum upper bounds for the system
limit parameters.  The significance of these values is that you can
safely push to these limits without checking whether the particular
system you are using can go that far.

‘_POSIX_AIO_LISTIO_MAX’
     The most restrictive limit permitted by POSIX for the maximum
     number of I/O operations that can be specified in a list I/O call.
     The value of this constant is ‘2’; thus you can add up to two new
     entries of the list of outstanding operations.

‘_POSIX_AIO_MAX’
     The most restrictive limit permitted by POSIX for the maximum
     number of outstanding asynchronous I/O operations.  The value of
     this constant is ‘1’.  So you cannot expect that you can issue more
     than one operation and immediately continue with the normal work,
     receiving the notifications asynchronously.

‘_POSIX_ARG_MAX’
     The value of this macro is the most restrictive limit permitted by
     POSIX for the maximum combined length of the ARGV and ENVIRON
     arguments that can be passed to the ‘exec’ functions.  Its value is
     ‘4096’.

‘_POSIX_CHILD_MAX’
     The value of this macro is the most restrictive limit permitted by
     POSIX for the maximum number of simultaneous processes per real
     user ID. Its value is ‘6’.

‘_POSIX_NGROUPS_MAX’
     The value of this macro is the most restrictive limit permitted by
     POSIX for the maximum number of supplementary group IDs per
     process.  Its value is ‘0’.

‘_POSIX_OPEN_MAX’
     The value of this macro is the most restrictive limit permitted by
     POSIX for the maximum number of files that a single process can
     have open simultaneously.  Its value is ‘16’.

‘_POSIX_SSIZE_MAX’
     The value of this macro is the most restrictive limit permitted by
     POSIX for the maximum value that can be stored in an object of type
     ‘ssize_t’.  Its value is ‘32767’.

‘_POSIX_STREAM_MAX’
     The value of this macro is the most restrictive limit permitted by
     POSIX for the maximum number of streams that a single process can
     have open simultaneously.  Its value is ‘8’.

‘_POSIX_TZNAME_MAX’
     The value of this macro is the most restrictive limit permitted by
     POSIX for the maximum length of a time zone name.  Its value is
     ‘3’.

‘_POSIX2_RE_DUP_MAX’
     The value of this macro is the most restrictive limit permitted by
     POSIX for the numbers used in the ‘\{MIN,MAX\}’ construct in a
     regular expression.  Its value is ‘255’.


File: libc.info,  Node: Limits for Files,  Next: Options for Files,  Prev: Minimums,  Up: System Configuration

32.6 Limits on File System Capacity
===================================

The POSIX.1 standard specifies a number of parameters that describe the
limitations of the file system.  It’s possible for the system to have a
fixed, uniform limit for a parameter, but this isn’t the usual case.  On
most systems, it’s possible for different file systems (and, for some
parameters, even different files) to have different maximum limits.  For
example, this is very likely if you use NFS to mount some of the file
systems from other machines.

   Each of the following macros is defined in ‘limits.h’ only if the
system has a fixed, uniform limit for the parameter in question.  If the
system allows different file systems or files to have different limits,
then the macro is undefined; use ‘pathconf’ or ‘fpathconf’ to find out
the limit that applies to a particular file.  *Note Pathconf::.

   Each parameter also has another macro, with a name starting with
‘_POSIX’, which gives the lowest value that the limit is allowed to have
on _any_ POSIX system.  *Note File Minimums::.

 -- Macro: int LINK_MAX
     The uniform system limit (if any) for the number of names for a
     given file.  *Note Hard Links::.

 -- Macro: int MAX_CANON
     The uniform system limit (if any) for the amount of text in a line
     of input when input editing is enabled.  *Note Canonical or Not::.

 -- Macro: int MAX_INPUT
     The uniform system limit (if any) for the total number of
     characters typed ahead as input.  *Note I/O Queues::.

 -- Macro: int NAME_MAX
     The uniform system limit (if any) for the length of a file name
     component, not including the terminating null character.

     *Portability Note:* On some systems, the GNU C Library defines
     ‘NAME_MAX’, but does not actually enforce this limit.

 -- Macro: int PATH_MAX
     The uniform system limit (if any) for the length of an entire file
     name (that is, the argument given to system calls such as ‘open’),
     including the terminating null character.

     *Portability Note:* The GNU C Library does not enforce this limit
     even if ‘PATH_MAX’ is defined.

 -- Macro: int PIPE_BUF
     The uniform system limit (if any) for the number of bytes that can
     be written atomically to a pipe.  If multiple processes are writing
     to the same pipe simultaneously, output from different processes
     might be interleaved in chunks of this size.  *Note Pipes and
     FIFOs::.

   These are alternative macro names for some of the same information.

 -- Macro: int MAXNAMLEN
     This is the BSD name for ‘NAME_MAX’.  It is defined in ‘dirent.h’.

 -- Macro: int FILENAME_MAX
     The value of this macro is an integer constant expression that
     represents the maximum length of a file name string.  It is defined
     in ‘stdio.h’.

     Unlike ‘PATH_MAX’, this macro is defined even if there is no actual
     limit imposed.  In such a case, its value is typically a very large
     number.  *This is always the case on GNU/Hurd systems.*

     *Usage Note:* Don’t use ‘FILENAME_MAX’ as the size of an array in
     which to store a file name!  You can’t possibly make an array that
     big!  Use dynamic allocation (*note Memory Allocation::) instead.


File: libc.info,  Node: Options for Files,  Next: File Minimums,  Prev: Limits for Files,  Up: System Configuration

32.7 Optional Features in File Support
======================================

POSIX defines certain system-specific options in the system calls for
operating on files.  Some systems support these options and others do
not.  Since these options are provided in the kernel, not in the
library, simply using the GNU C Library does not guarantee that any of
these features is supported; it depends on the system you are using.
They can also vary between file systems on a single machine.

   This section describes the macros you can test to determine whether a
particular option is supported on your machine.  If a given macro is
defined in ‘unistd.h’, then its value says whether the corresponding
feature is supported.  (A value of ‘-1’ indicates no; any other value
indicates yes.)  If the macro is undefined, it means particular files
may or may not support the feature.

   Since all the machines that support the GNU C Library also support
NFS, one can never make a general statement about whether all file
systems support the ‘_POSIX_CHOWN_RESTRICTED’ and ‘_POSIX_NO_TRUNC’
features.  So these names are never defined as macros in the GNU C
Library.

 -- Macro: int _POSIX_CHOWN_RESTRICTED
     If this option is in effect, the ‘chown’ function is restricted so
     that the only changes permitted to nonprivileged processes is to
     change the group owner of a file to either be the effective group
     ID of the process, or one of its supplementary group IDs.  *Note
     File Owner::.

 -- Macro: int _POSIX_NO_TRUNC
     If this option is in effect, file name components longer than
     ‘NAME_MAX’ generate an ‘ENAMETOOLONG’ error.  Otherwise, file name
     components that are too long are silently truncated.

 -- Macro: unsigned char _POSIX_VDISABLE
     This option is only meaningful for files that are terminal devices.
     If it is enabled, then handling for special control characters can
     be disabled individually.  *Note Special Characters::.

   If one of these macros is undefined, that means that the option might
be in effect for some files and not for others.  To inquire about a
particular file, call ‘pathconf’ or ‘fpathconf’.  *Note Pathconf::.


File: libc.info,  Node: File Minimums,  Next: Pathconf,  Prev: Options for Files,  Up: System Configuration

32.8 Minimum Values for File System Limits
==========================================

Here are the names for the POSIX minimum upper bounds for some of the
above parameters.  The significance of these values is that you can
safely push to these limits without checking whether the particular
system you are using can go that far.  In most cases GNU systems do not
have these strict limitations.  The actual limit should be requested if
necessary.

‘_POSIX_LINK_MAX’
     The most restrictive limit permitted by POSIX for the maximum value
     of a file’s link count.  The value of this constant is ‘8’; thus,
     you can always make up to eight names for a file without running
     into a system limit.

‘_POSIX_MAX_CANON’
     The most restrictive limit permitted by POSIX for the maximum
     number of bytes in a canonical input line from a terminal device.
     The value of this constant is ‘255’.

‘_POSIX_MAX_INPUT’
     The most restrictive limit permitted by POSIX for the maximum
     number of bytes in a terminal device input queue (or typeahead
     buffer).  *Note Input Modes::.  The value of this constant is
     ‘255’.

‘_POSIX_NAME_MAX’
     The most restrictive limit permitted by POSIX for the maximum
     number of bytes in a file name component.  The value of this
     constant is ‘14’.

‘_POSIX_PATH_MAX’
     The most restrictive limit permitted by POSIX for the maximum
     number of bytes in a file name.  The value of this constant is
     ‘256’.

‘_POSIX_PIPE_BUF’
     The most restrictive limit permitted by POSIX for the maximum
     number of bytes that can be written atomically to a pipe.  The
     value of this constant is ‘512’.

‘SYMLINK_MAX’
     Maximum number of bytes in a symbolic link.

‘POSIX_REC_INCR_XFER_SIZE’
     Recommended increment for file transfer sizes between the
     ‘POSIX_REC_MIN_XFER_SIZE’ and ‘POSIX_REC_MAX_XFER_SIZE’ values.

‘POSIX_REC_MAX_XFER_SIZE’
     Maximum recommended file transfer size.

‘POSIX_REC_MIN_XFER_SIZE’
     Minimum recommended file transfer size.

‘POSIX_REC_XFER_ALIGN’
     Recommended file transfer buffer alignment.


File: libc.info,  Node: Pathconf,  Next: Utility Limits,  Prev: File Minimums,  Up: System Configuration

32.9 Using ‘pathconf’
=====================

When your machine allows different files to have different values for a
file system parameter, you can use the functions in this section to find
out the value that applies to any particular file.

   These functions and the associated constants for the PARAMETER
argument are declared in the header file ‘unistd.h’.

 -- Function: long int pathconf (const char *FILENAME, int PARAMETER)
     Preliminary: | MT-Safe | AS-Unsafe lock heap | AC-Unsafe lock fd
     mem | *Note POSIX Safety Concepts::.

     This function is used to inquire about the limits that apply to the
     file named FILENAME.

     The PARAMETER argument should be one of the ‘_PC_’ constants listed
     below.

     The normal return value from ‘pathconf’ is the value you requested.
     A value of ‘-1’ is returned both if the implementation does not
     impose a limit, and in case of an error.  In the former case,
     ‘errno’ is not set, while in the latter case, ‘errno’ is set to
     indicate the cause of the problem.  So the only way to use this
     function robustly is to store ‘0’ into ‘errno’ just before calling
     it.

     Besides the usual file name errors (*note File Name Errors::), the
     following error condition is defined for this function:

     ‘EINVAL’
          The value of PARAMETER is invalid, or the implementation
          doesn’t support the PARAMETER for the specific file.

 -- Function: long int fpathconf (int FILEDES, int PARAMETER)
     Preliminary: | MT-Safe | AS-Unsafe lock heap | AC-Unsafe lock fd
     mem | *Note POSIX Safety Concepts::.

     This is just like ‘pathconf’ except that an open file descriptor is
     used to specify the file for which information is requested,
     instead of a file name.

     The following ‘errno’ error conditions are defined for this
     function:

     ‘EBADF’
          The FILEDES argument is not a valid file descriptor.

     ‘EINVAL’
          The value of PARAMETER is invalid, or the implementation
          doesn’t support the PARAMETER for the specific file.

   Here are the symbolic constants that you can use as the PARAMETER
argument to ‘pathconf’ and ‘fpathconf’.  The values are all integer
constants.

‘_PC_LINK_MAX’
     Inquire about the value of ‘LINK_MAX’.

‘_PC_MAX_CANON’
     Inquire about the value of ‘MAX_CANON’.

‘_PC_MAX_INPUT’
     Inquire about the value of ‘MAX_INPUT’.

‘_PC_NAME_MAX’
     Inquire about the value of ‘NAME_MAX’.

‘_PC_PATH_MAX’
     Inquire about the value of ‘PATH_MAX’.

‘_PC_PIPE_BUF’
     Inquire about the value of ‘PIPE_BUF’.

‘_PC_CHOWN_RESTRICTED’
     Inquire about the value of ‘_POSIX_CHOWN_RESTRICTED’.

‘_PC_NO_TRUNC’
     Inquire about the value of ‘_POSIX_NO_TRUNC’.

‘_PC_VDISABLE’
     Inquire about the value of ‘_POSIX_VDISABLE’.

‘_PC_SYNC_IO’
     Inquire about the value of ‘_POSIX_SYNC_IO’.

‘_PC_ASYNC_IO’
     Inquire about the value of ‘_POSIX_ASYNC_IO’.

‘_PC_PRIO_IO’
     Inquire about the value of ‘_POSIX_PRIO_IO’.

‘_PC_FILESIZEBITS’
     Inquire about the availability of large files on the filesystem.

‘_PC_REC_INCR_XFER_SIZE’
     Inquire about the value of ‘POSIX_REC_INCR_XFER_SIZE’.

‘_PC_REC_MAX_XFER_SIZE’
     Inquire about the value of ‘POSIX_REC_MAX_XFER_SIZE’.

‘_PC_REC_MIN_XFER_SIZE’
     Inquire about the value of ‘POSIX_REC_MIN_XFER_SIZE’.

‘_PC_REC_XFER_ALIGN’
     Inquire about the value of ‘POSIX_REC_XFER_ALIGN’.

   *Portability Note:* On some systems, the GNU C Library does not
enforce ‘_PC_NAME_MAX’ or ‘_PC_PATH_MAX’ limits.


File: libc.info,  Node: Utility Limits,  Next: Utility Minimums,  Prev: Pathconf,  Up: System Configuration

32.10 Utility Program Capacity Limits
=====================================

The POSIX.2 standard specifies certain system limits that you can access
through ‘sysconf’ that apply to utility behavior rather than the
behavior of the library or the operating system.

   The GNU C Library defines macros for these limits, and ‘sysconf’
returns values for them if you ask; but these values convey no
meaningful information.  They are simply the smallest values that
POSIX.2 permits.

 -- Macro: int BC_BASE_MAX
     The largest value of ‘obase’ that the ‘bc’ utility is guaranteed to
     support.

 -- Macro: int BC_DIM_MAX
     The largest number of elements in one array that the ‘bc’ utility
     is guaranteed to support.

 -- Macro: int BC_SCALE_MAX
     The largest value of ‘scale’ that the ‘bc’ utility is guaranteed to
     support.

 -- Macro: int BC_STRING_MAX
     The largest number of characters in one string constant that the
     ‘bc’ utility is guaranteed to support.

 -- Macro: int COLL_WEIGHTS_MAX
     The largest number of weights that can necessarily be used in
     defining the collating sequence for a locale.

 -- Macro: int EXPR_NEST_MAX
     The maximum number of expressions that can be nested within
     parenthesis by the ‘expr’ utility.

 -- Macro: int LINE_MAX
     The largest text line that the text-oriented POSIX.2 utilities can
     support.  (If you are using the GNU versions of these utilities,
     then there is no actual limit except that imposed by the available
     virtual memory, but there is no way that the library can tell you
     this.)

 -- Macro: int EQUIV_CLASS_MAX
     The maximum number of weights that can be assigned to an entry of
     the ‘LC_COLLATE’ category ‘order’ keyword in a locale definition.
     The GNU C Library does not presently support locale definitions.


File: libc.info,  Node: Utility Minimums,  Next: String Parameters,  Prev: Utility Limits,  Up: System Configuration

32.11 Minimum Values for Utility Limits
=======================================

‘_POSIX2_BC_BASE_MAX’
     The most restrictive limit permitted by POSIX.2 for the maximum
     value of ‘obase’ in the ‘bc’ utility.  Its value is ‘99’.

‘_POSIX2_BC_DIM_MAX’
     The most restrictive limit permitted by POSIX.2 for the maximum
     size of an array in the ‘bc’ utility.  Its value is ‘2048’.

‘_POSIX2_BC_SCALE_MAX’
     The most restrictive limit permitted by POSIX.2 for the maximum
     value of ‘scale’ in the ‘bc’ utility.  Its value is ‘99’.

‘_POSIX2_BC_STRING_MAX’
     The most restrictive limit permitted by POSIX.2 for the maximum
     size of a string constant in the ‘bc’ utility.  Its value is
     ‘1000’.

‘_POSIX2_COLL_WEIGHTS_MAX’
     The most restrictive limit permitted by POSIX.2 for the maximum
     number of weights that can necessarily be used in defining the
     collating sequence for a locale.  Its value is ‘2’.

‘_POSIX2_EXPR_NEST_MAX’
     The most restrictive limit permitted by POSIX.2 for the maximum
     number of expressions nested within parenthesis when using the
     ‘expr’ utility.  Its value is ‘32’.

‘_POSIX2_LINE_MAX’
     The most restrictive limit permitted by POSIX.2 for the maximum
     size of a text line that the text utilities can handle.  Its value
     is ‘2048’.

‘_POSIX2_EQUIV_CLASS_MAX’
     The most restrictive limit permitted by POSIX.2 for the maximum
     number of weights that can be assigned to an entry of the
     ‘LC_COLLATE’ category ‘order’ keyword in a locale definition.  Its
     value is ‘2’.  The GNU C Library does not presently support locale
     definitions.


File: libc.info,  Node: String Parameters,  Prev: Utility Minimums,  Up: System Configuration

32.12 String-Valued Parameters
==============================

POSIX.2 defines a way to get string-valued parameters from the operating
system with the function ‘confstr’:

 -- Function: size_t confstr (int PARAMETER, char *BUF, size_t LEN)
     Preliminary: | MT-Safe | AS-Safe | AC-Safe | *Note POSIX Safety
     Concepts::.

     This function reads the value of a string-valued system parameter,
     storing the string into LEN bytes of memory space starting at BUF.
     The PARAMETER argument should be one of the ‘_CS_’ symbols listed
     below.

     The normal return value from ‘confstr’ is the length of the string
     value that you asked for.  If you supply a null pointer for BUF,
     then ‘confstr’ does not try to store the string; it just returns
     its length.  A value of ‘0’ indicates an error.

     If the string you asked for is too long for the buffer (that is,
     longer than ‘LEN - 1’), then ‘confstr’ stores just that much
     (leaving room for the terminating null character).  You can tell
     that this has happened because ‘confstr’ returns a value greater
     than or equal to LEN.

     The following ‘errno’ error conditions are defined for this
     function:

     ‘EINVAL’
          The value of the PARAMETER is invalid.

   Currently there is just one parameter you can read with ‘confstr’:

‘_CS_PATH’
     This parameter’s value is the recommended default path for
     searching for executable files.  This is the path that a user has
     by default just after logging in.

‘_CS_LFS_CFLAGS’
     The returned string specifies which additional flags must be given
     to the C compiler if a source is compiled using the
     ‘_LARGEFILE_SOURCE’ feature select macro; *note Feature Test
     Macros::.

‘_CS_LFS_LDFLAGS’
     The returned string specifies which additional flags must be given
     to the linker if a source is compiled using the ‘_LARGEFILE_SOURCE’
     feature select macro; *note Feature Test Macros::.

‘_CS_LFS_LIBS’
     The returned string specifies which additional libraries must be
     linked to the application if a source is compiled using the
     ‘_LARGEFILE_SOURCE’ feature select macro; *note Feature Test
     Macros::.

‘_CS_LFS_LINTFLAGS’
     The returned string specifies which additional flags must be given
     to the lint tool if a source is compiled using the
     ‘_LARGEFILE_SOURCE’ feature select macro; *note Feature Test
     Macros::.

‘_CS_LFS64_CFLAGS’
     The returned string specifies which additional flags must be given
     to the C compiler if a source is compiled using the
     ‘_LARGEFILE64_SOURCE’ feature select macro; *note Feature Test
     Macros::.

‘_CS_LFS64_LDFLAGS’
     The returned string specifies which additional flags must be given
     to the linker if a source is compiled using the
     ‘_LARGEFILE64_SOURCE’ feature select macro; *note Feature Test
     Macros::.

‘_CS_LFS64_LIBS’
     The returned string specifies which additional libraries must be
     linked to the application if a source is compiled using the
     ‘_LARGEFILE64_SOURCE’ feature select macro; *note Feature Test
     Macros::.

‘_CS_LFS64_LINTFLAGS’
     The returned string specifies which additional flags must be given
     to the lint tool if a source is compiled using the
     ‘_LARGEFILE64_SOURCE’ feature select macro; *note Feature Test
     Macros::.

   The way to use ‘confstr’ without any arbitrary limit on string size
is to call it twice: first call it to get the length, allocate the
buffer accordingly, and then call ‘confstr’ again to fill the buffer,
like this:

     char *
     get_default_path (void)
     {
       size_t len = confstr (_CS_PATH, NULL, 0);
       char *buffer = (char *) xmalloc (len);

       if (confstr (_CS_PATH, buf, len + 1) == 0)
         {
           free (buffer);
           return NULL;
         }

       return buffer;
     }


File: libc.info,  Node: Cryptographic Functions,  Next: Debugging Support,  Prev: System Configuration,  Up: Top

33 DES Encryption and Password Handling
***************************************

On many systems, it is unnecessary to have any kind of user
authentication; for instance, a workstation which is not connected to a
network probably does not need any user authentication, because to use
the machine an intruder must have physical access.

   Sometimes, however, it is necessary to be sure that a user is
authorized to use some service a machine provides—for instance, to log
in as a particular user id (*note Users and Groups::).  One traditional
way of doing this is for each user to choose a secret "password"; then,
the system can ask someone claiming to be a user what the user’s
password is, and if the person gives the correct password then the
system can grant the appropriate privileges.

   If all the passwords are just stored in a file somewhere, then this
file has to be very carefully protected.  To avoid this, passwords are
run through a "one-way function", a function which makes it difficult to
work out what its input was by looking at its output, before storing in
the file.

   The GNU C Library provides a one-way function that is compatible with
the behavior of the ‘crypt’ function introduced in FreeBSD 2.0.  It
supports two one-way algorithms: one based on the MD5 message-digest
algorithm that is compatible with modern BSD systems, and the other
based on the Data Encryption Standard (DES) that is compatible with Unix
systems.

   It also provides support for Secure RPC, and some library functions
that can be used to perform normal DES encryption.  The ‘AUTH_DES’
authentication flavor in Secure RPC, as provided by the GNU C Library,
uses DES and does not comply with FIPS 140-2 nor does any other use of
DES within the GNU C Library.  It is recommended that Secure RPC should
not be used for systems that need to comply with FIPS 140-2 since all
flavors of encrypted authentication use normal DES.

* Menu:

* Legal Problems::              This software can get you locked up, or worse.
* getpass::                     Prompting the user for a password.
* crypt::                       A one-way function for passwords.
* DES Encryption::              Routines for DES encryption.


File: libc.info,  Node: Legal Problems,  Next: getpass,  Up: Cryptographic Functions

33.1 Legal Problems
===================

Because of the continuously changing state of the law, it’s not possible
to provide a definitive survey of the laws affecting cryptography.
Instead, this section warns you of some of the known trouble spots; this
may help you when you try to find out what the laws of your country are.

   Some countries require that you have a licence to use, possess, or
import cryptography.  These countries are believed to include
Byelorussia, Burma, India, Indonesia, Israel, Kazakhstan, Pakistan,
Russia, and Saudi Arabia.

   Some countries restrict the transmission of encrypted messages by
radio; some telecommunications carriers restrict the transmission of
encrypted messages over their network.

   Many countries have some form of export control for encryption
software.  The Wassenaar Arrangement is a multilateral agreement between
33 countries (Argentina, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Canada,
the Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary,
Ireland, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway,
Poland, Portugal, the Republic of Korea, Romania, the Russian
Federation, the Slovak Republic, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey,
Ukraine, the United Kingdom and the United States) which restricts some
kinds of encryption exports.  Different countries apply the arrangement
in different ways; some do not allow the exception for certain kinds of
“public domain” software (which would include this library), some only
restrict the export of software in tangible form, and others impose
significant additional restrictions.

   The United States has additional rules.  This software would
generally be exportable under 15 CFR 740.13(e), which permits exports of
“encryption source code” which is “publicly available” and which is “not
subject to an express agreement for the payment of a licensing fee or
royalty for commercial production or sale of any product developed with
the source code” to most countries.

   The rules in this area are continuously changing.  If you know of any
information in this manual that is out-of-date, please report it to the
bug database.  *Note Reporting Bugs::.


File: libc.info,  Node: getpass,  Next: crypt,  Prev: Legal Problems,  Up: Cryptographic Functions

33.2 Reading Passwords
======================

When reading in a password, it is desirable to avoid displaying it on
the screen, to help keep it secret.  The following function handles this
in a convenient way.

 -- Function: char * getpass (const char *PROMPT)
     Preliminary: | MT-Unsafe term | AS-Unsafe heap lock corrupt |
     AC-Unsafe term lock corrupt | *Note POSIX Safety Concepts::.

     ‘getpass’ outputs PROMPT, then reads a string in from the terminal
     without echoing it.  It tries to connect to the real terminal,
     ‘/dev/tty’, if possible, to encourage users not to put plaintext
     passwords in files; otherwise, it uses ‘stdin’ and ‘stderr’.
     ‘getpass’ also disables the INTR, QUIT, and SUSP characters on the
     terminal using the ‘ISIG’ terminal attribute (*note Local Modes::).
     The terminal is flushed before and after ‘getpass’, so that
     characters of a mistyped password are not accidentally visible.

     In other C libraries, ‘getpass’ may only return the first
     ‘PASS_MAX’ bytes of a password.  The GNU C Library has no limit, so
     ‘PASS_MAX’ is undefined.

     The prototype for this function is in ‘unistd.h’.  ‘PASS_MAX’ would
     be defined in ‘limits.h’.

   This precise set of operations may not suit all possible situations.
In this case, it is recommended that users write their own ‘getpass’
substitute.  For instance, a very simple substitute is as follows:


     #include <termios.h>
     #include <stdio.h>

     ssize_t
     my_getpass (char **lineptr, size_t *n, FILE *stream)
     {
       struct termios old, new;
       int nread;

       /* Turn echoing off and fail if we can’t. */
       if (tcgetattr (fileno (stream), &old) != 0)
         return -1;
       new = old;
       new.c_lflag &= ~ECHO;
       if (tcsetattr (fileno (stream), TCSAFLUSH, &new) != 0)
         return -1;

       /* Read the password. */
       nread = getline (lineptr, n, stream);

       /* Restore terminal. */
       (void) tcsetattr (fileno (stream), TCSAFLUSH, &old);

       return nread;
     }

   The substitute takes the same parameters as ‘getline’ (*note Line
Input::); the user must print any prompt desired.


File: libc.info,  Node: crypt,  Next: DES Encryption,  Prev: getpass,  Up: Cryptographic Functions

33.3 Encrypting Passwords
=========================

 -- Function: char * crypt (const char *KEY, const char *SALT)
     Preliminary: | MT-Unsafe race:crypt | AS-Unsafe corrupt lock heap
     dlopen | AC-Unsafe lock mem | *Note POSIX Safety Concepts::.

     The ‘crypt’ function takes a password, KEY, as a string, and a SALT
     character array which is described below, and returns a printable
     ASCII string which starts with another salt.  It is believed that,
     given the output of the function, the best way to find a KEY that
     will produce that output is to guess values of KEY until the
     original value of KEY is found.

     The SALT parameter does two things.  Firstly, it selects which
     algorithm is used, the MD5-based one or the DES-based one.
     Secondly, it makes life harder for someone trying to guess
     passwords against a file containing many passwords; without a SALT,
     an intruder can make a guess, run ‘crypt’ on it once, and compare
     the result with all the passwords.  With a SALT, the intruder must
     run ‘crypt’ once for each different salt.

     For the MD5-based algorithm, the SALT should consist of the string
     ‘$1$’, followed by up to 8 characters, terminated by either another
     ‘$’ or the end of the string.  The result of ‘crypt’ will be the
     SALT, followed by a ‘$’ if the salt didn’t end with one, followed
     by 22 characters from the alphabet ‘./0-9A-Za-z’, up to 34
     characters total.  Every character in the KEY is significant.

     For the DES-based algorithm, the SALT should consist of two
     characters from the alphabet ‘./0-9A-Za-z’, and the result of
     ‘crypt’ will be those two characters followed by 11 more from the
     same alphabet, 13 in total.  Only the first 8 characters in the KEY
     are significant.

     The MD5-based algorithm has no limit on the useful length of the
     password used, and is slightly more secure.  It is therefore
     preferred over the DES-based algorithm.

     When the user enters their password for the first time, the SALT
     should be set to a new string which is reasonably random.  To
     verify a password against the result of a previous call to ‘crypt’,
     pass the result of the previous call as the SALT.

   The following short program is an example of how to use ‘crypt’ the
first time a password is entered.  Note that the SALT generation is just
barely acceptable; in particular, it is not unique between machines, and
in many applications it would not be acceptable to let an attacker know
what time the user’s password was last set.


     #include <stdio.h>
     #include <time.h>
     #include <unistd.h>
     #include <crypt.h>

     int
     main(void)
     {
       unsigned long seed[2];
       char salt[] = "$1$........";
       const char *const seedchars =
         "./0123456789ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRST"
         "UVWXYZabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz";
       char *password;
       int i;

       /* Generate a (not very) random seed.
          You should do it better than this... */
       seed[0] = time(NULL);
       seed[1] = getpid() ^ (seed[0] >> 14 & 0x30000);

       /* Turn it into printable characters from ‘seedchars’. */
       for (i = 0; i < 8; i++)
         salt[3+i] = seedchars[(seed[i/5] >> (i%5)*6) & 0x3f];

       /* Read in the user’s password and encrypt it. */
       password = crypt(getpass("Password:"), salt);

       /* Print the results. */
       puts(password);
       return 0;
     }

   The next program shows how to verify a password.  It prompts the user
for a password and prints “Access granted.” if the user types ‘GNU libc
manual’.


     #include <stdio.h>
     #include <string.h>
     #include <unistd.h>
     #include <crypt.h>

     int
     main(void)
     {
       /* Hashed form of "GNU libc manual". */
       const char *const pass = "$1$/iSaq7rB$EoUw5jJPPvAPECNaaWzMK/";

       char *result;
       int ok;

       /* Read in the user’s password and encrypt it,
          passing the expected password in as the salt. */
       result = crypt(getpass("Password:"), pass);

       /* Test the result. */
       ok = strcmp (result, pass) == 0;

       puts(ok ? "Access granted." : "Access denied.");
       return ok ? 0 : 1;
     }

 -- Function: char * crypt_r (const char *KEY, const char *SALT, struct
          crypt_data * DATA)
     Preliminary: | MT-Safe | AS-Unsafe corrupt lock heap dlopen |
     AC-Unsafe lock mem | *Note POSIX Safety Concepts::.

     The ‘crypt_r’ function does the same thing as ‘crypt’, but takes an
     extra parameter which includes space for its result (among other
     things), so it can be reentrant.  ‘data->initialized’ must be
     cleared to zero before the first time ‘crypt_r’ is called.

     The ‘crypt_r’ function is a GNU extension.

   The ‘crypt’ and ‘crypt_r’ functions are prototyped in the header
‘crypt.h’.


File: libc.info,  Node: DES Encryption,  Prev: crypt,  Up: Cryptographic Functions

33.4 DES Encryption
===================

The Data Encryption Standard is described in the US Government Federal
Information Processing Standards (FIPS) 46-3 published by the National
Institute of Standards and Technology.  The DES has been very thoroughly
analyzed since it was developed in the late 1970s, and no new
significant flaws have been found.

   However, the DES uses only a 56-bit key (plus 8 parity bits), and a
machine has been built in 1998 which can search through all possible
keys in about 6 days, which cost about US$200000; faster searches would
be possible with more money.  This makes simple DES insecure for most
purposes, and NIST no longer permits new US government systems to use
simple DES.

   For serious encryption functionality, it is recommended that one of
the many free encryption libraries be used instead of these routines.

   The DES is a reversible operation which takes a 64-bit block and a
64-bit key, and produces another 64-bit block.  Usually the bits are
numbered so that the most-significant bit, the first bit, of each block
is numbered 1.

   Under that numbering, every 8th bit of the key (the 8th, 16th, and so
on) is not used by the encryption algorithm itself.  But the key must
have odd parity; that is, out of bits 1 through 8, and 9 through 16, and
so on, there must be an odd number of ‘1’ bits, and this completely
specifies the unused bits.

 -- Function: void setkey (const char *KEY)
     Preliminary: | MT-Unsafe race:crypt | AS-Unsafe corrupt lock |
     AC-Unsafe lock | *Note POSIX Safety Concepts::.

     The ‘setkey’ function sets an internal data structure to be an
     expanded form of KEY.  KEY is specified as an array of 64 bits each
     stored in a ‘char’, the first bit is ‘key[0]’ and the 64th bit is
     ‘key[63]’.  The KEY should have the correct parity.

 -- Function: void encrypt (char *BLOCK, int EDFLAG)
     Preliminary: | MT-Unsafe race:crypt | AS-Unsafe corrupt lock |
     AC-Unsafe lock | *Note POSIX Safety Concepts::.

     The ‘encrypt’ function encrypts BLOCK if EDFLAG is 0, otherwise it
     decrypts BLOCK, using a key previously set by ‘setkey’.  The result
     is placed in BLOCK.

     Like ‘setkey’, BLOCK is specified as an array of 64 bits each
     stored in a ‘char’, but there are no parity bits in BLOCK.

 -- Function: void setkey_r (const char *KEY, struct crypt_data * DATA)
 -- Function: void encrypt_r (char *BLOCK, int EDFLAG, struct crypt_data
          * DATA)
     Preliminary: | MT-Safe | AS-Unsafe corrupt lock | AC-Unsafe lock |
     *Note POSIX Safety Concepts::.

     These are reentrant versions of ‘setkey’ and ‘encrypt’.  The only
     difference is the extra parameter, which stores the expanded
     version of KEY.  Before calling ‘setkey_r’ the first time,
     ‘data->initialized’ must be cleared to zero.

   The ‘setkey_r’ and ‘encrypt_r’ functions are GNU extensions.
‘setkey’, ‘encrypt’, ‘setkey_r’, and ‘encrypt_r’ are defined in
‘crypt.h’.

 -- Function: int ecb_crypt (char *KEY, char *BLOCKS, unsigned LEN,
          unsigned MODE)
     Preliminary: | MT-Safe | AS-Safe | AC-Safe | *Note POSIX Safety
     Concepts::.

     The function ‘ecb_crypt’ encrypts or decrypts one or more blocks
     using DES. Each block is encrypted independently.

     The BLOCKS and the KEY are stored packed in 8-bit bytes, so that
     the first bit of the key is the most-significant bit of ‘key[0]’
     and the 63rd bit of the key is stored as the least-significant bit
     of ‘key[7]’.  The KEY should have the correct parity.

     LEN is the number of bytes in BLOCKS.  It should be a multiple of 8
     (so that there is a whole number of blocks to encrypt).  LEN is
     limited to a maximum of ‘DES_MAXDATA’ bytes.

     The result of the encryption replaces the input in BLOCKS.

     The MODE parameter is the bitwise OR of two of the following:

     ‘DES_ENCRYPT’
          This constant, used in the MODE parameter, specifies that
          BLOCKS is to be encrypted.

     ‘DES_DECRYPT’
          This constant, used in the MODE parameter, specifies that
          BLOCKS is to be decrypted.

     ‘DES_HW’
          This constant, used in the MODE parameter, asks to use a
          hardware device.  If no hardware device is available,
          encryption happens anyway, but in software.

     ‘DES_SW’
          This constant, used in the MODE parameter, specifies that no
          hardware device is to be used.

     The result of the function will be one of these values:

     ‘DESERR_NONE’
          The encryption succeeded.

     ‘DESERR_NOHWDEVICE’
          The encryption succeeded, but there was no hardware device
          available.

     ‘DESERR_HWERROR’
          The encryption failed because of a hardware problem.

     ‘DESERR_BADPARAM’
          The encryption failed because of a bad parameter, for instance
          LEN is not a multiple of 8 or LEN is larger than
          ‘DES_MAXDATA’.

 -- Function: int DES_FAILED (int ERR)
     Preliminary: | MT-Safe | AS-Safe | AC-Safe | *Note POSIX Safety
     Concepts::.

     This macro returns 1 if ERR is a ‘success’ result code from
     ‘ecb_crypt’ or ‘cbc_crypt’, and 0 otherwise.

 -- Function: int cbc_crypt (char *KEY, char *BLOCKS, unsigned LEN,
          unsigned MODE, char *IVEC)
     Preliminary: | MT-Safe | AS-Safe | AC-Safe | *Note POSIX Safety
     Concepts::.

     The function ‘cbc_crypt’ encrypts or decrypts one or more blocks
     using DES in Cipher Block Chaining mode.

     For encryption in CBC mode, each block is exclusive-ored with IVEC
     before being encrypted, then IVEC is replaced with the result of
     the encryption, then the next block is processed.  Decryption is
     the reverse of this process.

     This has the advantage that blocks which are the same before being
     encrypted are very unlikely to be the same after being encrypted,
     making it much harder to detect patterns in the data.

     Usually, IVEC is set to 8 random bytes before encryption starts.
     Then the 8 random bytes are transmitted along with the encrypted
     data (without themselves being encrypted), and passed back in as
     IVEC for decryption.  Another possibility is to set IVEC to 8
     zeroes initially, and have the first the block encrypted consist of
     8 random bytes.

     Otherwise, all the parameters are similar to those for ‘ecb_crypt’.

 -- Function: void des_setparity (char *KEY)
     Preliminary: | MT-Safe | AS-Safe | AC-Safe | *Note POSIX Safety
     Concepts::.

     The function ‘des_setparity’ changes the 64-bit KEY, stored packed
     in 8-bit bytes, to have odd parity by altering the low bits of each
     byte.

   The ‘ecb_crypt’, ‘cbc_crypt’, and ‘des_setparity’ functions and their
accompanying macros are all defined in the header ‘rpc/des_crypt.h’.


File: libc.info,  Node: Debugging Support,  Next: POSIX Threads,  Prev: Cryptographic Functions,  Up: Top

34 Debugging support
********************

Applications are usually debugged using dedicated debugger programs.
But sometimes this is not possible and, in any case, it is useful to
provide the developer with as much information as possible at the time
the problems are experienced.  For this reason a few functions are
provided which a program can use to help the developer more easily
locate the problem.

* Menu:

* Backtraces::                Obtaining and printing a back trace of the
                               current stack.


File: libc.info,  Node: Backtraces,  Up: Debugging Support

34.1 Backtraces
===============

A "backtrace" is a list of the function calls that are currently active
in a thread.  The usual way to inspect a backtrace of a program is to
use an external debugger such as gdb.  However, sometimes it is useful
to obtain a backtrace programmatically from within a program, e.g., for
the purposes of logging or diagnostics.

   The header file ‘execinfo.h’ declares three functions that obtain and
manipulate backtraces of the current thread.

 -- Function: int backtrace (void **BUFFER, int SIZE)
     Preliminary: | MT-Safe | AS-Unsafe init heap dlopen plugin lock |
     AC-Unsafe init mem lock fd | *Note POSIX Safety Concepts::.

     The ‘backtrace’ function obtains a backtrace for the current
     thread, as a list of pointers, and places the information into
     BUFFER.  The argument SIZE should be the number of ‘void *’
     elements that will fit into BUFFER.  The return value is the actual
     number of entries of BUFFER that are obtained, and is at most SIZE.

     The pointers placed in BUFFER are actually return addresses
     obtained by inspecting the stack, one return address per stack
     frame.

     Note that certain compiler optimizations may interfere with
     obtaining a valid backtrace.  Function inlining causes the inlined
     function to not have a stack frame; tail call optimization replaces
     one stack frame with another; frame pointer elimination will stop
     ‘backtrace’ from interpreting the stack contents correctly.

 -- Function: char ** backtrace_symbols (void *const *BUFFER, int SIZE)
     Preliminary: | MT-Safe | AS-Unsafe heap | AC-Unsafe mem lock |
     *Note POSIX Safety Concepts::.

     The ‘backtrace_symbols’ function translates the information
     obtained from the ‘backtrace’ function into an array of strings.
     The argument BUFFER should be a pointer to an array of addresses
     obtained via the ‘backtrace’ function, and SIZE is the number of
     entries in that array (the return value of ‘backtrace’).

     The return value is a pointer to an array of strings, which has
     SIZE entries just like the array BUFFER.  Each string contains a
     printable representation of the corresponding element of BUFFER.
     It includes the function name (if this can be determined), an
     offset into the function, and the actual return address (in
     hexadecimal).

     Currently, the function name and offset only be obtained on systems
     that use the ELF binary format for programs and libraries.  On
     other systems, only the hexadecimal return address will be present.
     Also, you may need to pass additional flags to the linker to make
     the function names available to the program.  (For example, on
     systems using GNU ld, you must pass (‘-rdynamic’.)

     The return value of ‘backtrace_symbols’ is a pointer obtained via
     the ‘malloc’ function, and it is the responsibility of the caller
     to ‘free’ that pointer.  Note that only the return value need be
     freed, not the individual strings.

     The return value is ‘NULL’ if sufficient memory for the strings
     cannot be obtained.

 -- Function: void backtrace_symbols_fd (void *const *BUFFER, int SIZE,
          int FD)
     Preliminary: | MT-Safe | AS-Safe | AC-Unsafe lock | *Note POSIX
     Safety Concepts::.

     The ‘backtrace_symbols_fd’ function performs the same translation
     as the function ‘backtrace_symbols’ function.  Instead of returning
     the strings to the caller, it writes the strings to the file
     descriptor FD, one per line.  It does not use the ‘malloc’
     function, and can therefore be used in situations where that
     function might fail.

   The following program illustrates the use of these functions.  Note
that the array to contain the return addresses returned by ‘backtrace’
is allocated on the stack.  Therefore code like this can be used in
situations where the memory handling via ‘malloc’ does not work anymore
(in which case the ‘backtrace_symbols’ has to be replaced by a
‘backtrace_symbols_fd’ call as well).  The number of return addresses is
normally not very large.  Even complicated programs rather seldom have a
nesting level of more than, say, 50 and with 200 possible entries
probably all programs should be covered.


     #include <execinfo.h>
     #include <stdio.h>
     #include <stdlib.h>

     /* Obtain a backtrace and print it to ‘stdout’. */
     void
     print_trace (void)
     {
       void *array[10];
       size_t size;
       char **strings;
       size_t i;

       size = backtrace (array, 10);
       strings = backtrace_symbols (array, size);

       printf ("Obtained %zd stack frames.\n", size);

       for (i = 0; i < size; i++)
          printf ("%s\n", strings[i]);

       free (strings);
     }

     /* A dummy function to make the backtrace more interesting. */
     void
     dummy_function (void)
     {
       print_trace ();
     }

     int
     main (void)
     {
       dummy_function ();
       return 0;
     }


File: libc.info,  Node: POSIX Threads,  Next: Internal Probes,  Prev: Debugging Support,  Up: Top

35 POSIX Threads
****************

This chapter describes the GNU C Library POSIX Thread implementation.

* Menu:

* Thread-specific Data::          Support for creating and
				  managing thread-specific data
* Non-POSIX Extensions::          Additional functions to extend
				  POSIX Thread functionality


File: libc.info,  Node: Thread-specific Data,  Next: Non-POSIX Extensions,  Up: POSIX Threads

35.1 Thread-specific Data
=========================

The GNU C Library implements functions to allow users to create and
manage data specific to a thread.  Such data may be destroyed at thread
exit, if a destructor is provided.  The following functions are defined:

 -- Function: int pthread_key_create (pthread_key_t *KEY, void
          (*DESTRUCTOR)(void*))
     Preliminary: | MT-Safe | AS-Safe | AC-Safe | *Note POSIX Safety
     Concepts::.

     Create a thread-specific data key for the calling thread,
     referenced by KEY.

     Objects declared with the C++11 ‘thread_local’ keyword are
     destroyed before thread-specific data, so they should not be used
     in thread-specific data destructors or even as members of the
     thread-specific data, since the latter is passed as an argument to
     the destructor function.

 -- Function: int pthread_key_delete (pthread_key_t KEY)
     Preliminary: | MT-Safe | AS-Safe | AC-Safe | *Note POSIX Safety
     Concepts::.

     Destroy the thread-specific data KEY in the calling thread.  The
     destructor for the thread-specific data is not called during
     destruction, nor is it called during thread exit.

 -- Function: void *pthread_getspecific (pthread_key_t KEY)
     Preliminary: | MT-Safe | AS-Safe | AC-Safe | *Note POSIX Safety
     Concepts::.

     Return the thread-specific data associated with KEY in the calling
     thread.

 -- Function: int pthread_setspecific (pthread_key_t KEY, const void
          *VALUE)
     Preliminary: | MT-Safe | AS-Unsafe corrupt heap | AC-Unsafe corrupt
     mem | *Note POSIX Safety Concepts::.

     Associate the thread-specific VALUE with KEY in the calling thread.


File: libc.info,  Node: Non-POSIX Extensions,  Prev: Thread-specific Data,  Up: POSIX Threads

35.2 Non-POSIX Extensions
=========================

In addition to implementing the POSIX API for threads, the GNU C Library
provides additional functions and interfaces to provide functionality
not specified in the standard.

* Menu:

* Default Thread Attributes::             Setting default attributes for
					  threads in a process.


File: libc.info,  Node: Default Thread Attributes,  Up: Non-POSIX Extensions

35.2.1 Setting Process-wide defaults for thread attributes
----------------------------------------------------------

The GNU C Library provides non-standard API functions to set and get the
default attributes used in the creation of threads in a process.

 -- Function: int pthread_getattr_default_np (pthread_attr_t *ATTR)
     Preliminary: | MT-Safe | AS-Unsafe lock | AC-Unsafe lock | *Note
     POSIX Safety Concepts::.

     Get the default attribute values and set ATTR to match.  This
     function returns 0 on success and a non-zero error code on failure.

 -- Function: int pthread_setattr_default_np (pthread_attr_t *ATTR)
     Preliminary: | MT-Safe | AS-Unsafe heap lock | AC-Unsafe lock mem |
     *Note POSIX Safety Concepts::.

     Set the default attribute values to match the values in ATTR.  The
     function returns 0 on success and a non-zero error code on failure.
     The following error codes are defined for this function:

     ‘EINVAL’
          At least one of the values in ATTR does not qualify as valid
          for the attributes or the stack address is set in the
          attribute.
     ‘ENOMEM’
          The system does not have sufficient memory.


File: libc.info,  Node: Internal Probes,  Next: Language Features,  Prev: POSIX Threads,  Up: Top

36 Internal probes
******************

In order to aid in debugging and monitoring internal behavior, the GNU C
Library exposes nearly-zero-overhead SystemTap probes marked with the
‘libc’ provider.

   These probes are not part of the GNU C Library stable ABI, and they
are subject to change or removal across releases.  Our only promise with
regard to them is that, if we find a need to remove or modify the
arguments of a probe, the modified probe will have a different name, so
that program monitors relying on the old probe will not get unexpected
arguments.

* Menu:

* Memory Allocation Probes::  Probes in the memory allocation subsystem
* Mathematical Function Probes::  Probes in mathematical functions
* Non-local Goto Probes::  Probes in setjmp and longjmp


File: libc.info,  Node: Memory Allocation Probes,  Next: Mathematical Function Probes,  Up: Internal Probes

36.1 Memory Allocation Probes
=============================

These probes are designed to signal relatively unusual situations within
the virtual memory subsystem of the GNU C Library.

 -- Probe: memory_sbrk_more (void *$ARG1, size_t $ARG2)
     This probe is triggered after the main arena is extended by calling
     ‘sbrk’.  Argument $ARG1 is the additional size requested to ‘sbrk’,
     and $ARG2 is the pointer that marks the end of the ‘sbrk’ area,
     returned in response to the request.

 -- Probe: memory_sbrk_less (void *$ARG1, size_t $ARG2)
     This probe is triggered after the size of the main arena is
     decreased by calling ‘sbrk’.  Argument $ARG1 is the size released
     by ‘sbrk’ (the positive value, rather than the negative value
     passed to ‘sbrk’), and $ARG2 is the pointer that marks the end of
     the ‘sbrk’ area, returned in response to the request.

 -- Probe: memory_heap_new (void *$ARG1, size_t $ARG2)
     This probe is triggered after a new heap is ‘mmap’ed.  Argument
     $ARG1 is a pointer to the base of the memory area, where the
     ‘heap_info’ data structure is held, and $ARG2 is the size of the
     heap.

 -- Probe: memory_heap_free (void *$ARG1, size_t $ARG2)
     This probe is triggered _before_ (unlike the other sbrk and heap
     probes) a heap is completely removed via ‘munmap’.  Argument $ARG1
     is a pointer to the heap, and $ARG2 is the size of the heap.

 -- Probe: memory_heap_more (void *$ARG1, size_t $ARG2)
     This probe is triggered after a trailing portion of an ‘mmap’ed
     heap is extended.  Argument $ARG1 is a pointer to the heap, and
     $ARG2 is the new size of the heap.

 -- Probe: memory_heap_less (void *$ARG1, size_t $ARG2)
     This probe is triggered after a trailing portion of an ‘mmap’ed
     heap is released.  Argument $ARG1 is a pointer to the heap, and
     $ARG2 is the new size of the heap.

 -- Probe: memory_malloc_retry (size_t $ARG1)
 -- Probe: memory_realloc_retry (size_t $ARG1, void *$ARG2)
 -- Probe: memory_memalign_retry (size_t $ARG1, size_t $ARG2)
 -- Probe: memory_calloc_retry (size_t $ARG1)
     These probes are triggered when the corresponding functions fail to
     obtain the requested amount of memory from the arena in use, before
     they call ‘arena_get_retry’ to select an alternate arena in which
     to retry the allocation.  Argument $ARG1 is the amount of memory
     requested by the user; in the ‘calloc’ case, that is the total size
     computed from both function arguments.  In the ‘realloc’ case,
     $ARG2 is the pointer to the memory area being resized.  In the
     ‘memalign’ case, $ARG2 is the alignment to be used for the request,
     which may be stricter than the value passed to the ‘memalign’
     function.  A ‘memalign’ probe is also used by functions
     ‘posix_memalign, valloc’ and ‘pvalloc’.

     Note that the argument order does _not_ match that of the
     corresponding two-argument functions, so that in all of these
     probes the user-requested allocation size is in $ARG1.

 -- Probe: memory_arena_retry (size_t $ARG1, void *$ARG2)
     This probe is triggered within ‘arena_get_retry’ (the function
     called to select the alternate arena in which to retry an
     allocation that failed on the first attempt), before the selection
     of an alternate arena.  This probe is redundant, but much easier to
     use when it’s not important to determine which of the various
     memory allocation functions is failing to allocate on the first
     try.  Argument $ARG1 is the same as in the function-specific
     probes, except for extra room for padding introduced by functions
     that have to ensure stricter alignment.  Argument $ARG2 is the
     arena in which allocation failed.

 -- Probe: memory_arena_new (void *$ARG1, size_t $ARG2)
     This probe is triggered when ‘malloc’ allocates and initializes an
     additional arena (not the main arena), but before the arena is
     assigned to the running thread or inserted into the internal linked
     list of arenas.  The arena’s ‘malloc_state’ internal data structure
     is located at $ARG1, within a newly-allocated heap big enough to
     hold at least $ARG2 bytes.

 -- Probe: memory_arena_reuse (void *$ARG1, void *$ARG2)
     This probe is triggered when ‘malloc’ has just selected an existing
     arena to reuse, and (temporarily) reserved it for exclusive use.
     Argument $ARG1 is a pointer to the newly-selected arena, and $ARG2
     is a pointer to the arena previously used by that thread.

     This occurs within ‘reused_arena’, right after the mutex mentioned
     in probe ‘memory_arena_reuse_wait’ is acquired; argument $ARG1 will
     point to the same arena.  In this configuration, this will usually
     only occur once per thread.  The exception is when a thread first
     selected the main arena, but a subsequent allocation from it fails:
     then, and only then, may we switch to another arena to retry that
     allocations, and for further allocations within that thread.

 -- Probe: memory_arena_reuse_wait (void *$ARG1, void *$ARG2, void
          *$ARG3)
     This probe is triggered when ‘malloc’ is about to wait for an arena
     to become available for reuse.  Argument $ARG1 holds a pointer to
     the mutex the thread is going to wait on, $ARG2 is a pointer to a
     newly-chosen arena to be reused, and $ARG3 is a pointer to the
     arena previously used by that thread.

     This occurs within ‘reused_arena’, when a thread first tries to
     allocate memory or needs a retry after a failure to allocate from
     the main arena, there isn’t any free arena, the maximum number of
     arenas has been reached, and an existing arena was chosen for
     reuse, but its mutex could not be immediately acquired.  The mutex
     in $ARG1 is the mutex of the selected arena.

 -- Probe: memory_arena_reuse_free_list (void *$ARG1)
     This probe is triggered when ‘malloc’ has chosen an arena that is
     in the free list for use by a thread, within the ‘get_free_list’
     function.  The argument $ARG1 holds a pointer to the selected
     arena.

 -- Probe: memory_mallopt (int $ARG1, int $ARG2)
     This probe is triggered when function ‘mallopt’ is called to change
     ‘malloc’ internal configuration parameters, before any change to
     the parameters is made.  The arguments $ARG1 and $ARG2 are the ones
     passed to the ‘mallopt’ function.

 -- Probe: memory_mallopt_mxfast (int $ARG1, int $ARG2)
     This probe is triggered shortly after the ‘memory_mallopt’ probe,
     when the parameter to be changed is ‘M_MXFAST’, and the requested
     value is in an acceptable range.  Argument $ARG1 is the requested
     value, and $ARG2 is the previous value of this ‘malloc’ parameter.

 -- Probe: memory_mallopt_trim_threshold (int $ARG1, int $ARG2, int
          $ARG3)
     This probe is triggere shortly after the ‘memory_mallopt’ probe,
     when the parameter to be changed is ‘M_TRIM_THRESHOLD’.  Argument
     $ARG1 is the requested value, $ARG2 is the previous value of this
     ‘malloc’ parameter, and $ARG3 is nonzero if dynamic threshold
     adjustment was already disabled.

 -- Probe: memory_mallopt_top_pad (int $ARG1, int $ARG2, int $ARG3)
     This probe is triggered shortly after the ‘memory_mallopt’ probe,
     when the parameter to be changed is ‘M_TOP_PAD’.  Argument $ARG1 is
     the requested value, $ARG2 is the previous value of this ‘malloc’
     parameter, and $ARG3 is nonzero if dynamic threshold adjustment was
     already disabled.

 -- Probe: memory_mallopt_mmap_threshold (int $ARG1, int $ARG2, int
          $ARG3)
     This probe is triggered shortly after the ‘memory_mallopt’ probe,
     when the parameter to be changed is ‘M_MMAP_THRESHOLD’, and the
     requested value is in an acceptable range.  Argument $ARG1 is the
     requested value, $ARG2 is the previous value of this ‘malloc’
     parameter, and $ARG3 is nonzero if dynamic threshold adjustment was
     already disabled.

 -- Probe: memory_mallopt_mmap_max (int $ARG1, int $ARG2, int $ARG3)
     This probe is triggered shortly after the ‘memory_mallopt’ probe,
     when the parameter to be changed is ‘M_MMAP_MAX’.  Argument $ARG1
     is the requested value, $ARG2 is the previous value of this
     ‘malloc’ parameter, and $ARG3 is nonzero if dynamic threshold
     adjustment was already disabled.

 -- Probe: memory_mallopt_check_action (int $ARG1, int $ARG2)
     This probe is triggered shortly after the ‘memory_mallopt’ probe,
     when the parameter to be changed is ‘M_CHECK_ACTION’.  Argument
     $ARG1 is the requested value, and $ARG2 is the previous value of
     this ‘malloc’ parameter.

 -- Probe: memory_mallopt_perturb (int $ARG1, int $ARG2)
     This probe is triggered shortly after the ‘memory_mallopt’ probe,
     when the parameter to be changed is ‘M_PERTURB’.  Argument $ARG1 is
     the requested value, and $ARG2 is the previous value of this
     ‘malloc’ parameter.

 -- Probe: memory_mallopt_arena_test (int $ARG1, int $ARG2)
     This probe is triggered shortly after the ‘memory_mallopt’ probe,
     when the parameter to be changed is ‘M_ARENA_TEST’, and the
     requested value is in an acceptable range.  Argument $ARG1 is the
     requested value, and $ARG2 is the previous value of this ‘malloc’
     parameter.

 -- Probe: memory_mallopt_arena_max (int $ARG1, int $ARG2)
     This probe is triggered shortly after the ‘memory_mallopt’ probe,
     when the parameter to be changed is ‘M_ARENA_MAX’, and the
     requested value is in an acceptable range.  Argument $ARG1 is the
     requested value, and $ARG2 is the previous value of this ‘malloc’
     parameter.

 -- Probe: memory_mallopt_free_dyn_thresholds (int $ARG1, int $ARG2)
     This probe is triggered when function ‘free’ decides to adjust the
     dynamic brk/mmap thresholds.  Argument $ARG1 and $ARG2 are the
     adjusted mmap and trim thresholds, respectively.